550 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. 
schule” (the German citizens’ school), published in 1840, did 
much to clear the ground for the erection of higher realistic 
schools. Neither of them wished to interfere with the old 
humanistic method of teaching in the gymnasium and in the 
University, so far as concerned those students who wanted to 
devote themselves to advanced linguistic and _ philosophical 
studies, and who in their turn would preserve for us the precious 
heirloom of antiquity; but they insisted at the same time that 
the high task the modern Biirgerschule has to fulfil should not 
be interfered with. They were of opinion that the education 
given in the realistic schools should be compared with that of 
the ancient Greeks in their endeavor to unite the beautiful with 
the good, to make the knowledge of the future citizen thorough 
and comprehensive, and especially to educate him to intellectual 
and physical health, and to make him enjoy and appreciate the 
language and customs of his own country. 
"This new school of reformers did not wish to educate 
scholars, but men cultivated and able to enjoy the intellectual 
work of all nations, to live in the present world participating 
with a warm and fresh heart in the joys and sorrows of their 
fellow-beings, to form their own opinions by observation and 
thought, always ready to do the right thing at the right time. 
To obtain such a desirable result it was urged that the mother 
tongue ought to be the principal medium for thought and 
intellectual exercise, that the modern languages ought not to be 
neglected, and that mathematics, history, geography, and espe- 
cially the natural and physical sciences, ought to be taught 
with great attention, and by the best masters procurable. The 
pupils were to live in and with the present time, not satisfied 
with knowledge alone, but conversant with its practical applica- 
tion to every phase of life. Latin, they held, ought not to be 
taught, the French and English languages being substituted for 
their practical and logical powers, and their advantage to the 
cosmopolitan citizen. Several Hoehere Buergerschulen were 
created in different parts of Germany, principally in the larger 
cities ; and though the main tendencies as sketched out by 
Spilleke and his successors were generally followed, a number of 
alterations in the curriculum were introduced. Thus, in some 
schools Latin was compulsory, in others optional; whilst 
mathematics and physical science were in others the subjects to 
which most attention was paid. The latter was principally the 
case where the schools were situated in great manufacturing © 
or mining centres. Hitherto the final examination of the pupils 
after they had passed successfully through the highest form had 
not been recognised by the State, but in the year 1832 the 
Prussian Government, under the Liberal Minister von Alten- 
stein, passed an ordinance that in future these schools if they 
wished to be recognised by the State should consist of six 
classes, with a course of at least seven years. The subjects were 
specified in which the pupils at the end of their course should 
pass their final (Arbiturienten) examination. This included a 
