16 BULLETIN 1496, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
operations, so as to be able to forecast his returns. Before attempt- 
ing, therefore, to outline specific measures for handling different 
forest types, the essential conditions for the practice of forestry and 
the broad principles involved will be discussed. 
FIRE PREVENTION—THE KEY TO THE SITUATION 
A study of the effect of cutting and fires upon second growth in 
the different forest types shows that the whole problem of handling 
timberlands in the Lake States, if the aim is merely to produce some 
kind of forest crop, simmers down to fire protection. All evidence 
unmistakably points to one thing, namely, that no matter how the 
present merchantable timber on private lands is cut, if fire protection 
is given from the start, or even after the area has been once burned 
over, the land will come back to forest growth of economic impor- 
tance. (Pl.2, A.) It will not always be like the forest that has been 
cut over, nor will it always contain trees of the more valuable species. 
After a single burning it will usually tend to aspen or jack pine, or, 
in northern Minnesota, aspen and paper birch. In the Upper Penin- 
sula of Michigan the young growth will be maple, birch, and beech, 
with httle or no hemlock; and on many of the sandy soils of the 
Lower Peninsula of Michigan, western Wisconsin, and central Minne- 
sota it will be jack pine. These species are now of recognized com- 
mercial value, and they will be much more valuable in a few years. 
Aspen, paper birch, and jack pine will be the redemption of 
northern Minnesota and the northern part of the Lower Peninsula 
of Michigan and will pave the way to real timber growing on a large 
scale in another generation. 
Fire protection, therefore, is the most essential measure to keep 
forest land in a productive condition. Forest-fire protection, just 
like the protection of properties in cities and towns, is recognized as 
one of the important public functions of any organized community. 
Historic, political, and economic conditions will dictate the particu- 
lar form of organization which the State is to adopt for providing 
forest-fire protection. There are, however, a few fundamental 
principles which must underlie any effective forest-fire protective 
organization. 
GENERAL FIRE ORGANIZATION 
The essential features of an effective fire-protection organization 
may be considered from three standpoints: (1) Organization, (2) 
effectiveness, and (38) financial responsibility. 
ORGANIZATION 
Experience shows conclusively that any protective organization 
should consist of a nucleus of permanent men, an additional force 
employed full time during the fire season, and an emergency organ- 
ization. 
The permanent force should consist partly of the administrative 
and supervisory unit at the headquarters and partly of a field force, 
the headquarters force comprising a chief executive officer, a deputy, 
