Results 



Opportunity returns — In the Coastal Plains of North Carolina, returns 

 to croppers per hour exceeded farm wage rates in nearly all the 3-year 

 periods between 1922 and 1962 (figure 2) . The differences between the hourly 

 rates to croppers and to other farm wage earners tended to widen over time, 

 particularly after 1945. In the Piedmont area returns to croppers per hour 

 and farm wage rates did not appear to differ significantly, particularly 

 after 1930. The difference between the results for North Carolina and 

 Virginia was due to the fact that in North Carolina returns to croppers were 

 higher and farm wage rates were lower than those in Virginia for all of the 

 periods for which comparisons were made. 



The higher income to croppers in North Carolina may have been due to 

 the fact that croppers in North Carolina had a higher level of skill. The 

 multiple cropper unit system, prevalent in North Carolina, may have contri- 

 buted to a high rate of migration to urban areas by croppers whose level of 

 skill was lower than average. It is easier for landowners of multiple 

 cropper units to reduce the number of croppers in order to adjust to the 

 labor supply than it is for landowners of single cropper units. Also, under 

 the multiple cropper system, it is possible that landowners provided less 

 management to the operations of individual croppers than they did to croppers 

 operating under the single cropper system. If so, some of the returns to 

 croppers in North Carolina would be returns to management. 



Apparently the farm labor markets in the two States differ significant- 

 ly in composition of the labor force, types of jobs done, and forces affect- 

 ing wage levels. Farm wage rates in Virginia could be affected more by the 

 urban development in the East than those in North Carolina. Also, average 

 wage rates in North Carolina are affected more by low wage migrant workers 

 harvesting cotton and tobacco than average wage rates in Virginia. 



The ratios of returns to croppers in North Carolina and Virginia to 

 wages of workers in manufacturing in the United States are presented in 

 figure 3. Except for the low ratios during 1928-33 for both States, there 

 were no large changes in the ratios between the 3-year periods from 1922 to 

 1962 for either State. Also, the ratios for both States exhibited no over- 

 all trend upward or downward during the 40-year period. These results are 

 consistent with the hypothesis that tenure arrangements are flexible in the 

 long run. 



Whether the wages of workers in manufacturing are relevant opportunity 

 returns to croppers in North Carolina or Virginia may be open to some 

 question. However, trends in the wages of workers in manufacturing in the 

 United States reflect economic forces affecting wages generally, particularly 

 those forces establishing the level of nonfarm wage rates. 



The ratio of cropper returns to the median income of males in major 

 urban locations from 1940 through 1960 also supports the hypothesis that 

 tenure arrangements are flexible in the long run. For example, the ratio 

 of returns to croppers in both Virginia and North Carolina to the median 

 income of males in Washington, D.C.,and New York City was almost the same 



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