88 INSECTS AFFECTING DOMESTIC ANIMALS... 
by DeGeer in 1776 under the name of Uistrus bovis, later changed by 
Latrielle to Hypoderma bovis. 
In 1815 Bracy Clark, in his Essay on the Bots of Horses and Other 
Animals, presented probably the first careful study of its life history 
and habits, and later the researches of Brauer, Taschenberg, Zurn,and | 
others have added to our knowledge of the species. 
More recently Miss E. A. Ormerod, consulting entomologist of the 
Royal Agricultural Society of aloud, has published results of a num- 
ber of reported and personal observations on its habits, injuries, etc., 
and during the summer of 1889 the Farmers’ Review, in this county 
undertook an investigation on much the same plan. 
The species are, so far as we know, closely confined to the bovine 
race or nearly related species, lineata being regarded as a parasite of the 
buffalo as well as the ox. Kollar (Treatise on Insects) speaks of bovis 
as affecting besides cattle, the stag, roe, and camel, but no authentic 
record of such occurrence has been noted, and he may have had as a 
basis for the statement the related species occurring normally on these 
animals. There are, indeed, records of the rare occurrence of these 
parasites on man, but such are exceptional, and the species should be 
considered as restricted, primarily, to bovine animals. On account of 
this restriction, the-insect is known in the lafval stage only where eat- 
tle are kept, and can be introduced in a new country only in the larval 
stage with the animals. It is in this manner and this alone that they 
have been scattered over the world with domestic breeds of cattle. 
EXTENT AND MANNER OF INJURY. 
The losses from warble flies must be considered from three distinct 
points, only one of which can be estimated with any great accuracy. 
They are (1) the loss incurred on the hides perforated by the maggots, 
subjecting them to discount or rejection in the markets; (2) the loss in 
milk and beef supply caused by the fretting and stampeding due to the 
presence of the flies when laying eggs, and (3) the loss to the vitality 
of the animal, its weakened condition, and consequent loss in milk or 
‘beef due to the presence of the warbles, with accompanying ulcers in 
the back, sometimes, it is asserted, resulting in the death of the animal. 
LOSS ON HIDES. 
This will vary in different countries, both from the actual differences 
in abundance of warbles and consequent perforation of the hides and 
from the different rates of discount applied by different dealers. That 
it is by no means insignificant will appear from the following condensed 
statements of statistics and evidence on the subject: 
As a result of many inquiries and testimony from numerous sources, 
Miss Ormerod estimated the loss in England at $5 per head for cattle. 
RT El aa tne cer eae 
