16 FORAGE CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS. 
and the comparative inaccessibility of the region have all contributed 
to its protection in the past. It is essentially a summer range, and all 
stock wintered here must be fed for much longer periods than in the 
warmer and drier regions to the southward. Up to a year ago sum- 
mer grazing had been practically confined to stock owned by actual — 
settlers, who have not been able thus far to raise sufficient winter feed 
to support enough cattle to overstock the summer pastures. Doubt- 
less a very important factor in the preservation of the range has been 
the persistency with which the settlers have prevented sheep from- 
entering the territory. The development of the river bottoms into 
meadows which will furnish large quantities of hay and the advent of 
large numbers of sheep during the past summer will no doubt change 
the appearance of the native pastures very materially in the next few. 
years. 
The main forage plants on the ranges in the Okanogan region do 
not differ materially from those to the southward in the Big Bend 
except in the relative quantity of feed produced by the different 
species. The rolling hills are covered with a luxuriant growth of 
sheep fescue (Festuca ovina), bunch wheat grass (Agropyron spicatum), 
Wheeler’s bluegrass (Poa wheelert), and Sandberg’s bluegrass (Poa 
sandbergii) on the more rocky and gravelly soil. Nevada bluegrass 
(Poa nevadensis) and prairie June grass (Avelerta cristata) are also 
important factors everywhere above the river bottoms, while giant 
rye grass (Llymus condensatus) occurs in large patches along the sides 
of depressions on broad, level upland areas, as well as on the edges of 
the more moist lands along the river bottoms. Along ravines and 
sandy creeks and river bottoms, bunch wheat grass and giant rye grass 
are prominent in the lower altitudes, but the bulk of the forage is 
made up of the needle grasses (Stipa williamsic and S. columbiana), 
with the introduced weedy brome grasses (Bromus tectorwm) and chess 
(Bromus secalinus) in the lower draws and benches, where the native 
erasses have been injured by the trampling of stock on their way to 
and from feeding grounds and water. On all of the lower sandy 
benches just above the river bottoms, especially those of the Okano- 
gan and Columbia rivers, the feed is naturally pocr, as would be 
inferred from the presence of the needle grasses and the bromes pre- 
viously mentioned. Occasionally the stiffer soils are found on these 
benches, and bunch wheat grass (Agropyron spicatum) is always found 
in such situations, adding very materially to the feed; but in general 
these benches are taken up by species of rather inferior quality. Here 
also are found large areas of plantain (Plantago purshit), which closely 
resembles the Indian wheat (P. fastigéata) of the Southwest, but is of 
much less value, probably owing to the fact that feed is more plenti- 
ful here and stock are not forced to subsist upon it. Two other 
