12 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS. 



bars of rufous -buff, inner webs of three outer primaries with large 

 white spot on distal half varying in size and sometimes extending 

 on to outer web on 2nd and 3rd but smaller and rounder and not 

 reaching shaft on 1st, basal portions of inner webs of primaries with 

 somewhat interrupted comb-like markings or bars of rufous-buff ; 

 secondaries as inner primaries but with comb-like rufous-buff 

 barring usually better defined, innermost secondaries grey-brown 

 freckled black and with black shaft-stripes ; primary -coverts as 

 outer webs of primaries ; outer greater coverts same but inner 

 ones more freckled with grey, and innermost grey -brown freckled 

 black with black shaft-stripe as innermost secondaries and usually 

 with a more or less distinct cream or buff spot at tip of outer web ; 

 median coverts much as inner greater coverts, but with distinct 

 and large buff or cream spots ; lesser coverts black barred rufous 

 and feathers at point of wing with cream tips. This plumage is 

 acquired by moult in Aug. -Sept., and although inner secondaries 

 sometimes moult in Aug., it is possible that all wing- and tail- 

 feathers do not moult in autumn. Summer. — A complete moult 

 takes place in Dec. -Feb., but new plumage is as winter. Abrasion 

 and fading makes spots on wing-coverts, throat-spot and tips of 

 breast feathers whiter, while elongated feathers of centre of back 

 of crown become spear-shaped by reason of outer edges at tip 

 wearing away leaving black centra] stripe. 



Adult female. Winter and summer. — As male but two outer 

 pairs of tai] -feathers without white tips, tips (only 5-10 mm.) of 

 these two feathers being buff to greyish-buff, usually much vermicu- 

 lated with brown-black ; three outer primaries like rest of primaries 

 and without white spots, though often there is (especially on two 

 outer feathers) a small buff or rufous -buff spot (usually consider- 

 ably vermiculated with black) in corresponding position to white 

 spot in male. Moults as in male. 



Nestling. — Down pale buff basally, reddish-brown on distal 

 portions, long but rather sparse though almost covering bird. 



Juvenile. Male and female. — -As adult female and difficult 

 to distinguish except by looser structure of feathers, lower breast 

 and belly usually greyer and less buff, patch on throat buffer and 

 less well defined. 



First winter. Male and female. — Like adult female. The 

 juvenile body-feathers are moulted but not always completely 

 in Sept. -Oct., but not wing- or tail-feathers nor wing -co verts. 

 Summer. — A complete moult takes place Jan. -Feb. after which 

 male cannot be distinguished from adult male. 



Measurements and structure. — <J wing 184-198 mm., tail 129- 

 138, tarsus 17-19, bill from feathers 8-10 (12 British measured). 

 9 wing 183-206. Primaries : 2nd longest, 1st and 3rd 3-9 mm. 

 shorter, 4th 25-31 shorter, 5th 42-50 shorter, 6th 57-65 shorter ; 

 outer webs of 2nd and 3rd emarginated and slightly serrated along 

 edge of emarginated portion. Secondaries outermost feather 



