THE KESTREL. 123 



black spots on upper -parts larger ; F. t. rupicolceformis (Egypt) 

 is intermediate in size and colour between F. t. carlo and F. t. 

 tinnunculus . All forms of Kestrel require careful comparison of 

 series owing to individual variation. For differences of Lesser 

 Kestrel, see " Characters " under that species. 



Field -characters. — Coloration of male identifies it at once, 

 chestnut upper-parts with slate-grey head, rump and tail, last 

 having broad subterminal black band. Colours of female less 

 pronounced, but rufous-brown upper -parts and streaked rufous- 

 fawn breast and belly distinguish it from hen Merlin. Equally at 

 home in woodlands, open cultivated districts, bare hill -country 

 or rock-bound coasts, its food is always obtained in the open, and 

 mode of hunting is outstanding feature in its behaviour and readiest 

 clue to its identity. Its course, often at considerable height, is 

 constantly checked by the bird hanging stationary, head to wind, 

 with rapidly fanned wings and depressed and outspread tail as it 

 scans ground below. If no quarry be sighted it slips forward for 

 a few yards and manoeuvre is repeated until discovery of some 

 beetle or small mammal rewards its search and it drops to earth 

 to secure it. The cry is a sharp scream, " kee-kee-kee." 



Breeding-habits. — Makes no nest, but lays eggs in hollow scratched 

 out on ledge of cliff, or in wooded districts in old and flattened nests 

 of Magpie or Crow, more seldom Rook, Sparrow-Hawk, Raven, 

 Buzzard, or squirrel. Occasionally also lays in hollow in trunk of 

 tree, or recess in ivy, in ruins, towers, windmills, and exceptionally 

 on ground. Eggs. — Usually 4-5, sometimes 6, while 7 are rare and 

 there are records of 8 and even 9. Ground white, freely washed or 

 blotched dark red-brown, so that ground is frequently quite hidden ; 

 though in some varieties a good deal is visible and besides red- 

 dish or yellowish-brown spots and blotches, violet shell -marks 

 are also found. 100 British eggs average 39.7x31.7. Max.: 

 43.7x33.5 and 41.6x34.2. Min. : 35.4x29.7 and 36.4x29.7 mm. 

 Breeding -season. — About mid-April to mid-May or rather later. 

 Eggs laid at intervals of about two days. Incubation. — By both 

 sexes, but chiefly by female, lasts 27-28 days, beginning with first 

 egg laid. Single brooded. Fledging-period.— About 32-33 days. 



Food. — Largely small mammals, but birds frequently taken as 

 well as insects, especially beetles. Mammals : generally long and 

 short tailed field-mice, occasionally shrew, rat, mole, bank-vole and 

 quite exceptionally bats (noctule and pipistrelle), once young 

 rabbit. Birds, usually smaller species : Sparrow, Lark, Siskin, 

 Redpoll, Goldfinch, Greenfinch, Linnet, Yellow Bunting, Rock- 

 and Meadow-Pipit, Blackbird, Thrush, Fieldfare, Hedge-Sparrow, 

 Starling, etc. Larger birds occasionally recorded : wounded Red- 

 shank, young Lapwing, Snipe, and seen devouring Wood-Pigeon 

 and Hooded Crow ! Generally harmless to game, but individuals 

 will take young Pheasants, Red Grouse and Partridges in early 



