THE CORMORANT. 399 



being directed inwards) and fully webbed, claws short, strong and 

 curved, inner edge of third pectinated. 



Soft farts. — Bill pale horn-colour, blackish along top of culmen, 

 chrome-yellow at base of lower mandible as are gape, lores and 

 gullet ; legs and feet black ; iris blue-green to dark emerald-green 

 (ad.), grey-brown to blue-grey and greenish-grey (juv.), appears to 

 become green when bird is about a year old. 

 Characters and allied forms. — Ph. c. subcormoranus (Holland 

 to S.E Europe) adult has greenish instead of blue under -parts, in 

 breeding-plumage white feathers on head and neck more plentiful 

 and longer, bill slightly smaller * ; Ph. c. maroccanus adult is like 

 Ph. c. carbo but with throat and often upper-parts white with some 

 black tips to the feathers ; forms from India, China, and Australia 

 have been separated but are very close to Ph. c. subcormoranus ; 

 Ph. c. lucidus (S. Africa) is like Ph. c. maroccanus, but whiter on breast 

 and with finer bill. Cormorant is larger than Shag, has 14 not 12 

 tail-feathers and is blue not oily- green. 



Field -characters. — Adult differs from Shag, only British species 

 it resembles, in bronze-brown and black plumage, white chin and 

 throat ; and, in breeding-dress, by having conspicuous white 

 thigh-spot and hoary head and neck due to long greyish-white 

 hair -like plumes. Except by size, immature birds less easy to 

 distinguish, but breast and abdomen of Cormorant usually dull 

 white mottled with brown. Frequents estuaries and tidal rivers 

 as well as open seas round coast, and often occurs on lakes and 

 reservoirs inland. Swims with bill, which is noticeably hooked, 

 pointed upwards, and, if alarmed, often submerges, leaving only 

 head and neck protruding. An expert diver, but seldom remains 

 long below surface. Rises with difficulty from water. Flight 

 strong and rapid — long neck and short feet outstretched — usually 

 just above the waves, but at a considerable height when crossing 

 land. A conspicuous object when standing erect and with wings 

 displayed on some rock, sandbank, or buoy. Cry, a reiterated, 

 hoarse, croaking " kraw," seldom heard except at nesting-place. 

 Creaking hunger-cry of young not unlike " go -back, go -back " of 

 Guinea-fowl. 



Breeding-habits. — Mainly a shore- and estuary -haunting species, 

 but also often met with on larger rivers and inland lakes, breeding 

 in colonies on ledges of cliffs, small islands, both inland and off 

 coast, and in some cases nesting in trees. Nest. — Mainly composed 

 of seaweed near coast, but in trees inland built of sticks and 

 heather stems, lined grass, green rushes, straw, etc. Eggs. — Usually 

 3 or 4, not infrequently 5 and rarely 6, soft and chalky in texture, 

 with pale blue undershell, almost concealed with chalky-white 



* One adult (Brit. Mus. Coll., Christchurch, Hants., Feb., 1873) is as 

 white on crown and neck as is normal in Ph. c. subcormoranus and is greenish 

 on under-parts and this may be a migrant of that form but it is the only 

 British-taken adult resembling subcormoranus that I have examined. — H.F.W. 



