560 A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS. 



breast ; in summer : male by " ruff," female by black and sandy 

 upper -parts and fawn-coloured breast, juvenile by warm buff 

 throat and breast and edgings on upper -parts. 



Field -characters. — Female in breeding-dress has thrush-like 

 spots at sides of upper-breast, whilst feathers of upper -parts are 

 blackish margined with pale buff or white. Despite great individual 

 variation in colour male in summer is, with his extravagant ruff and 

 ear -tufts, unlike any other British bird, but majority that occur 

 are young on passage in autumn. At that season plumage of sexes 

 is similar, but male is larger. Bill of medium length, stout and just 

 perceptibly decurved ; legs variable, usually greenish ; upper -parts 

 brown with broad buff margins to feathers ; fore-neck and sides of 

 breast pinkish-buff ; under -parts white. Narrow white wing-bar 

 shows in flight as does an oval white patch on each side of brown- 

 coloured median area in tail, the best character for identification 

 at all ages. Haunts swamps, marshes and margins of lakes, where 

 it stands erect or walks with deliberate gait probing mud for food. 

 During courtship males assemble at "hill," a bare spot on marsh- 

 land, spar and posture, crouching with ruffs expanded and bills 

 touching ground. Silent as a rule, but sometimes utters a low 

 " tu-whit " on being disturbed, and is said to whistle loudly when 

 migrating. Jourdain speaks of low guttural note of female when 

 young are in danger. 



Breeding-habits. — In central Europe nests are mostly found 

 among thick grass in meadows not far from " hill." Nest. — A 

 hollow in ground neatly lined with fine dry grasses and well hidden. 

 Eggs. — Normally 4, pyriform, usually ranging from pale grey or 

 ochreous to pale green, exceptionally clear blue, boldly spotted and 

 blotched with dark sepia and ashy shellmarks, thickest at large end. 

 White eggs have also been recorded. Average of 141 eggs, 43.9 X 

 30.7. Max.: 47.5x30.5 and 43.2 x 32.1. Min. : 39.2x31.6 and 

 42.9x28 mm. Breeding -season. — Usually 2nd and 3rd weeks May 

 in Central Europe, but not till June in north. Incubation. — By 

 female alone. Period not definitely known, fide Naumann 17-19 

 days. Single brooded. 



Food. — Chiefly insects of various orders including smaller coleop- 

 tera (Agonum, Bembidium, Parnus, Cyclonotum, Sitones, Pisodes, 

 Bhinoncus and Philhydrus) ; orthoptera (earwigs, grasshoppers, etc.) 

 diptera (Tipula, etc.) ; neuroptera (larvse of Phryganeidce, Epheme- 

 ridm) ; Trichoptera (Limnophilus) and Hemiptera (Naucoris). Also 

 small freshwater bivalves, small Crustacea and worms. Vegetable 

 matter is also eaten, e.g. seeds of plants (Bumex, Polygonum, etc.), 

 algse, and in winter quarters rice and durra. 



Distribution. — British Isles. — Passage -migrant (mid -April to early 

 June and end July to early Nov.) and occasional winter and summer. 

 Formerly bred many places England but only occasionally now. A 

 pair nested 1901, 1902, and 1903 near Teesmouth (Durham) ; in 

 Norfolk Broads, 1907 (and possibly other years) ; eggs said to have 



