14 CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE NATURAL HISTORY OF ALASKA. 



considerable size, drain the vast, extremely depressed, area between the Yukon and Knskokvim 

 Rivers. The coast line between the Knskokvim River and Aliaska is partly low in the northern, 

 and rugged in the central part, with alternating low and high stretches on the southern part. 

 This extent is much broken by broad bays of water, several large streams, and the large rivers, 

 Nushagak, Kvichiik, and Ugasik. At varying distances along the entire coast line broken ranges 

 of mountains appear, their general direction being east and west for the southern part, and north 

 and south for the northern part. The character of the interior is not known, except along the 

 larger rivers, and that being of generally the same character as the coast. The peninsula of 

 Aliaska is simply a continuation of the Alaskan Mountains, forming a comparatively long, narrow 

 strip of land, extending nearly northeast and southwest. It is very mountainous, much broken 

 into short ranges, usually several peaks on a wide base, or else isolated mountains often of great 

 height, the portion of those over 2,800 feet high being destitute of vegetation. These mountains 

 are quite abrupt on the southern side, and have numerous bays, coves, and arms of the sea thrust 

 among them . even to their bases. The northern shore of the peninsula of Aliaska is a low, varied 

 strip of land, a few miles to a few rods in width, the eastern end of the north side being generally 

 wider and of less elevation, somewhat approaching the general characters of the tundras of the 

 Yukon District. 



The Aleutian Islands are but an interrupted continuation of the Aliaskan Peninsula. They 

 extend in an easterly and western direction for a little over 1,000 miles; the central islands being 

 farther south give the chain a nearly regular curve. Including the Commander Islands, the chain 

 has its ends terminating nearly in the same degree (55°) of latitude, and the southernmost islands 

 lying in about 51° 20' north. The principal islands of the chain have their longer axis nearly iu 

 the same direction as that of the deenrvature of the entire chain, the shorter axis lying to the 

 eastward of north. The islands in the central part present a slight exception to these directions. 

 These islands are, generally speaking, very mountainous (among them several active volcanoes, 

 some of them very high), their sides generally abrupt, containing innumerable indentations, such 

 as deep bays and coves — these more abundant on the northern and eastern sides than on the south- 

 ern and western. (Nearly all the anchorages, and the villages, with few exceptions, are on the north 

 and east sides of the islands.) There is but little level ground on anv of the islands, that little being 

 formed at the entrance to the larger valleys flanked by high mountains on either side, from which 

 descend innumerable small streams from the summits of the mountains crowned, in most instances} 

 with eternal snows. These streams unite to form creeks of slight depth and width, haviug a short 

 course before they reach the sea. Lakes of variable size are to be found on nearly all the islands, 

 some of quite large area being situated on the higher hills. The hardness of the rocks and the 

 slight degree by which they are held in solution, renders the water flowing over them remarkably 

 pure and of excellence for drinking purposes. I much doubt if water from any part of the globe 

 makes better tea. 



SOIL. 



The greater portion of the coast line is bound with trachyte, porphyrite, syenite, and lava 

 The hardness of the rocks has produced a meager soil, though in some localities it is sandy and in 

 others a few isolated beds of clay occur. Near the mouths of the larger rivers great deposits of 

 alluvial matter are to be found, generally formed of fine sand and decomposed vegetable matter. 

 The depths of soil vary in each locality, and in the areas less favorably situated for drainage the 

 soil remains frozen at a depth of less than 18 inches from the surface. The stratum of irozeu soil 

 varies from 3 feet to an unknown depth. I have seen several holes dug for various purposes and 

 iu apparently well-drained situations, and have in each instance, on the v hill on which is situated 

 the redoubt of Saint Michael's, found the continually frozen soil to be at a depth of less than 3 

 feet from the surface. In localities which are well drained the layer of frozen soil may even dis- 

 appear during the latter part of summer, and in some places among the alluvial deposits it thaws 

 out early in July. Among the Aleutian Islands the soil is frozen only duringprotracted periods 

 of cold. The constant rains speedily thaw out the ground, which is in most plac( s but a thin sod 

 of a few inches to 2 or 3 feet, resting on a bed of gravel formed ages ago, and gradually encroached 



