320 



SCIENCE, 



[Vol. IV., No. 86. 



the ground. The Eskimos are, in his opinion, a people 

 of the ice, and from time immemorial had lived along 

 the ice-border, advancing and retreating with it, but 

 never residing far from it. All their habits of life 

 were formed from this contiguity. He considered 

 them to be a race distinct from the Indians, not 

 merely in language, but also in physical traits and in 

 character. They had brown hair and eyes : a black- 

 eyed Eskimo was hardly ever seen. Their complexion 

 was a clear brown, through which the play of color 

 could be plainly observed. They were naturally a 

 peaceful people, and he had never known a quarrel 

 among them. Though very superstitious, they could 

 not be properly said to have any religion. They had 

 no conception of a future existence. They did not 

 bury their dead, because the climate made this usually 

 impossible. They merely conveyed the corpse to a 

 distance from the village, and left it to be devoured 

 by the dogs. That, they said, was the end of the 

 man. Still they had ideas about a superior being 

 who had created man and other animals; and they 

 also believed in an evil spirit, who was to be propi- 

 tiated, or rather menaced, into compliance with their 

 desires. 



A paper on the nature and origin of wampum, by 

 Mr. H. Hale, described this article as shell-money, 

 differing from the East Indian cowries as coined 

 money differs from bullion. It consists of circular 

 disks or cylinders, made from various kinds of sea- 

 shells, polished to smoothness, and strung upon 

 strings. These served as currency among the North- 

 American Indians, and for a time among the colo- 

 nists. Strings and belts of wampum were also much 

 employed in the ceremonial usages of the Indians, 

 and as mnemonic records. The use of this money 

 was traced across the continent to California; thence 

 to the Micronesian groups in the North Pacific, 

 where it is universal ; and thence to China, where 

 in early times, according to the native authorities, 

 the money was made of tortoise-shell disks or slips 



strung on strings. The modern Chinese copper 

 money, known to Europeans as 'cash,' is made in 

 imitation of this tortoise-shell currency, and is strung 

 in like manner. It is also much used in ceremonial 

 observances, like the American wampum. The mode 

 in which the use of this form of money may have 

 spread from Eastern Asia to America is shown by the 

 fact that several Japanese junks have been wrecked 

 on the west coast of this continent during the present 

 century, and their crews have been rescued by the 

 Indians. The Micronesians have also large sailing- 

 vessels, in which they frequently make long voyages, 

 and are often driven by storms to great distances out 

 of their course. From one or other of these sources 

 the Californian Indians may have easily learned such 

 a simple art as that of making and using shell beads 

 for money ; and this art was one likely to spread to 

 the other tribes among whom it was found. 



In the long and interesting discussion which en- 

 sued, the views proposed in the paper were generally 

 approved. Professor Boyd Dawkins suggested for 

 consideration the question whether all money might 

 not have originated in the exchange of ornament. 

 A doubt having been expressed, whether the shell- 

 money was among the Indians a real currency, that 

 is, ' a measure of value,' several facts and authorities 

 were cited on that point. Mr. Cushing stated that 

 it was a currency among the ZuQis, and had a definite 

 value. Dr. Tylor mentioned the decisive fact, that 

 among the Melanesians, who nearly adjoin the people 

 of Micronesia, the shell-money is in use, and is em- 

 ployed in true banker fashion. A native who lends 

 nine strings of this money expects to receive back 

 ten strings from the borrower at the end of a month. 

 To gain this interest, it must be used in common as 

 a medium of exchange, which it could not be if it 

 were not a measure of value. 



Some other valuable papers were read; and this, 

 the first session of section H, must be deemed to 

 have been a particularly satisfactory one. 



AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOE THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 



PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF 

 CHEMISTRY. 



Dr. Springer of Cincinnati exhibited and de- 

 scribed some improvements in torsion scales and bal- 

 ances. These instruments are constructed with steel 

 bands or wires, upon the twisting or torsion of which 

 they depend for their action. Professor Caldwell in- 

 quired whether balances for chemists were made upon 

 this principle, and their cost compared with ordinary 

 knife-edge balances. Dr. Springer said that the very 

 first one made was sent to Prof. F. W. Clarke at 

 Cincinnati, and used by him for chemical analysis. 

 Professor Clarke said that its use by him was very 

 satisfactory. The adjustments were not easily dis- 

 turbed, which was a very important matter; and it 

 was as sensitive as a good knife-edge balance. 



A paper on the chemistry of roller-milling was 

 read by Mr. Clifford Richardson. The author stated 

 that with ordinary milling the north-western hard 

 winter wheat gave a dark-colored flour. This diffi- 

 culty is entirely overcome by using steel or porcelain 

 rolls run at different speeds. The results of a large 

 number of analyses of the products of roller-milling 

 were presented in a series of tables. The ash, oil, 

 fibre, and albuminoids increase towards the outside 

 of the grain. In true bran there is no gluten, the 

 gluten cells being scattered through the interior of 

 the grain. All the experiments were made on hard 

 Minnesota spring wheat. Eastern wheat does not 

 work well with roller-milling, the flour being dark- 

 colored. 



Dr. A. A. Julien read the report of progress by the 

 committee on indexes of the literature of chemical 



