of aerial cameras known to be in use as of 1965 
and the principal specifications and character- 
istics of each type are given by the American 
Society of Photogrammetry (1966). 
Higher resolution mapping frame cameras 
—eg. Zeiss RMK-A15-/23 and Wild RC-8, 
RC-9—have been used to obtain experimental 
photography of rangelands with different films 
and scales (1/4,000 up to 1/85,000). 
A Maurer KB-8, 70-mm. camera system ca- 
pable of obtaining very large scale photo- 
graphs, can be an extremely useful tool for im- 
proving range resource analysis (Carneggie 
1968; Reppert and Driscoll conference paper). 
Rapid shutter speeds and film advance rates 
allow this camera to be operated at altitudes as 
low as 300 feet. The resulting large-scale pho- 
tography, 1/600, can be used to detect and to 
identify objects as small as 1 to 2 inches. Rec- 
ognized applications of these photos include: 
(1) Identification of range plants (by species), 
plant conditions (e.g., health, leafiness, and 
utilization) and soil surface phenomena (e.g., 
rockiness, erosion, disturbance by grazing ani- 
mals, rodent activity, and animal droppings) ; 
and (2) quantification, either by estimate or di- 
rect photo measurement, of vegetation para- 
menters such as plant cover, density, and 
height. Examples of large-scale color and color 
infrared photos appear in figures 2 and 8 
(color plates I and II) and illustrate the tre- 
mendous capability of this camera system for 
gathering information. 
Animal inventory, assessment of factors in- 
fluencing productive capacity, detailed map- 
ping, and analysis of innumerable management 
problems are among the many ways informa- 
tion can be utilized. However, because the 
aerial coverage per exposure is relatively small 
(14,400 sq. ft. at a scale of 1/600), the greatest 
potential of this system will no doubt be real- 
ized when it is used in conjunction with small- 
scale or low-resolution systems to provide a de- 
tailed picture of selected “‘key” (sample) areas. 
The information derived from direct interpre- 
tation and measurement on the large-scale pho- 
tos combined with limited ground study can 
then be applied over a much larger range area, 
thereby improving the accuracy of interpreta- 
FIGURE 2 (Color Plate I). 
tions made from small-scale, low-resolution 
systems (operating at a high altitude or from 
earth orbit). As an example, livestock counts 
made from panchromatic photos (1/5,000) 
Were more accurate when large-scale (1/2, 
140) 70-mm. color transparencies were simul- 
taneously obtained to subsample a small area 
contained on the panchromatic photo (Hud- 
dleston and Roberts 1968). 
Multiband photographs obtained with a 
four-lens multiband camera are illustrated in 
Figure 4. Note that two film types—panchro- 
matic and near infrared—were exposed simul- 
taneously through four filters to give four nar- 
row band photographs. Such a system theoreti- 
cally allows the interpreter to discern more 
features. That is, the multiple photographs ac- 
centuate vegetation-soil boundaries by exploit- 
ing unique tone signatures in various portions 
of the visible and near infrared spectrum. Un- 
fortunately, interpretation of this photography 
is tedious and time consuming unless facilities 
are available to reconstitute the black-and- 
white images into a single color composite. (A 
relatively new interpretation technique known 
as image enhancement by additive color recon- 
stitution has been developed). Researchers be- 
lieve that multilens cameras can be effectively 
operated from space platforms because a 
higher resolution image can be obtained using 
black-and-white film. Only limited use of the 
multilens camera, e.g., for special-purpose in- 
ventory, is anticipated for conventional range 
analysis. 
Panchromatic, Aerographic Infrared, Aerial 
Ektachrome, and Ektachrome Infrared Aero 
(color infrared) aerial photographs have been 
compared to determine the ease and accuracy 
of extracting information from them for im- 
proved resource analysis (Carneggie et al. 1966, 
Carneggie, et al. 1967). 
Panchromatic film emulsions (figure 5) are 
sensitive to visible radiation from 0.4 to 0.7 mi- 
cron. However, panchromatic film is fre- 
quently exposed with a minus blue (Wratten 
12) filter to reduce scattering effects due to 
haze. Occasionally a red filter (Wratten 25A) 
is used to improve tone contrast between vege- 
tation and soil. The various gray tones seen on 
Part of Harvey Valley Range Allotment, Lassen National Forest, northeastern 
California is shown on Ektachrome Aerographic (top) and Ektachrome Infrared Aero (color infrared—bottom) 
aerial photographs. This perennial bunchgrass-sagebrush range was photographed on June 11, 1966, at a scale 
approximating 1/28,000. The original 9 by 9 inch transparencies cover a range area of approximately 16 square 
miles. The Ektachrome Aerographic photo gives a more representative picture of vegetation-soil color. However, 
notice the unique color renditions and contrasts in the Ektachrome Infrared Aero photo; these are particularly 
useful for detecting and for estimating the cover of range vegetation. For the purpose of identifying some im- 
portant range types, meadow vegetation is indicated at A, a Big Sagebrush community is indicated at B, and 
dense native perennial grass is indicated at C. A very large-scale photo showing the sharp ecotone indicated by 
the arrow is seen in figure 3 (color plate II). 
168 
