November 20, 1885.] 



SCIENCE. 



461 



in the second part, and in the third many sub- 

 ordinate subjects. Our space will not allow us to 

 do justice to the erudition of this great work, but 

 we can, perhaps, exhibit its scope so that those 

 who are interested in the circumstances which 

 gave bnth to the progenitors of our modern insti- 

 tutions may understand how rich a storehouse 

 of learning has been provided for them. 



The writer begins with the study of the now 

 venerable words, studium generate and universi- 

 tas. Both terms were in vogue as early as 1300. 

 The former phrase has not been found in use as 

 the name of a high school prior to 1233-34, when 

 it is apphed to the school of Vercelli : the phrase 

 studium universale is a httle older. Universitas 

 (as other writers, following Du Cange or the lexi- 

 cographers, have pointed out) had originally no 

 special reference to a seat of learning. It signified 

 very nearly what we call a corporation, and was 

 almost synonymous with such words as societas, 

 collegium, corpus, communio, consortium. Gradu- 

 ally it came to be employed for the corporation 

 devoted to the pursuit of knowledge, and then was 

 restricted to this use, so that U7iiversitas oxonien- 

 sis was interchangeable with studium oxoniense ; 

 but the proper designation of a mediaeval high 

 school was studium generate, or studium alone. As 

 early as 1254, the word ' university ' is used in Paris 

 as equivalent to 'college.' The definition of 

 Hugolinus is worth quoting : ' Universitas est 

 plurium corporum collectio inter se distantium 

 uno nomine speciahter eis deputato.' 



From this prehminary inquiry, the writer pro- 

 ceeds to the history of the universities of Paris 

 and Bologna, which, in his view, require more 

 elaborate treatment than the other high schools, 

 not only because of their extraordinary direct 

 influence, but because their constitution is the key 

 to that of many later foundations. The school at 

 Salerno, older than the two just named, was quite 

 subordinate in general influence. Savigny's the- 

 ory that universities, by a sort of natural evolution, 

 were developed around the chair of an illustrious 

 teacher, is vigorously opposed by Denifle, who 

 recognizes many factors as co-working in the 

 origin of an enduring university. New methods 

 of instruction, and privileges accorded by author- 

 ity, seem to our author most potent influences ; 

 but even more important was the forming of 

 corporations for the promotion of study, or, in 

 other words, the introduction of combined or co- 

 operative methods of instruction. The different 

 modes in which such combinations were secured 

 in Paris and Bologna are discussed at much 

 length. After considering the origin of these 

 typical foundations, in whose usages of five or six 

 centuries ago may be found the germ of customs 



and laws still recognized, even in the disjointed 

 members of American universities, the author 

 takes up, one by one, all the other European uni- 

 versities of the period he is considering. He makes 

 four groups, — schools, improperly called universi- 

 ties ; high schools without letters of authorization; 

 high schools which were established by x^apal 

 briefs ; and high schools which received their 

 privileges from papal and princely authority. 

 Finally, the relation of universities to pre-existent 

 schools is very fully discussed. 



We have said enough to show that the writer is 

 original, and to a considerable degree contro- 

 versial. Whatever criticism his views may caU 

 forth, — and they are likely to be most closely scru- 

 tinized in Germany, — his diligence in the collection 

 of facts, his comprehensive views, and his abun- 

 dant references to original authorities, entitle him 

 to the highest praise. There is good reason to 

 think that he is right in claiming that the period 

 he is discussing, instead of belonging to the age 

 of darkness, is one of those epochs when the 

 mind of man has received new impulses of un- 

 usual and persistent force. 



THE WASHBURN OBSERVATORY. 



The thu'd volume of the 'Publications of the 

 Washburn observatory,' lately issued, gives the 

 results of the work of 1884. About 1,800 observa- 

 tions were made with the Repsold meridian-circle 

 upon the gesellschaft southern fundamental stars 

 and the Leyden Cape of Good Hope refraction- 

 stars. The instrumental constants are given for 

 each observing day, and an investigation of the 

 zenith-distance micrometer-screw and of the 

 horizontal flexure of the instrument. In the cold 

 winter weather of Wisconsin the micrometer- 

 springs turned out too weak to puU the slides, and 

 had to be replaced with stiffer ones. The prob- 

 able error of a single dechnation is now reduced 

 to 0".4, a great improvement over that noted in 

 vol. ii.; and a correction of + 0".30 + 0''.026 to the 

 constant of the ' Pulkowa refractions ' seems to be 

 called for by the observations of 1884 to suit the 

 atmosphere over Madison. Professor Holden ex- 

 presses his continued satisfaction with the Repsold 

 meridian-circle, and appears to be making a very 

 thorough study of it ; and in this liis example 

 might weU be followed with j)rofit by some of our 

 older established observatories. Two determina- 

 tions of the latitude by Mr. G. C. Comstock are 

 given, — one from Professor Holden's and his own 

 observations with the zenith-telescope, the other 

 from his own with the prime-vertical ti*ansit, usiag 

 both reflected and direct observations ; the declina- 



