December 4, 1885,] 



SCIENCE. 



503 



there can now be scarcely any doubt, if the sum 

 of the aggregate result of the replies recorded 

 may be taken as a guide. The system hitherto 

 may be said to have been somewhat tentative ; 

 but, if the rate of development shown in the past 

 year continue, it appears probable that it will be 

 far-reaching in its effect. 



The system is undoubtedly peculiarly adapted to 

 the moist climate of England ; and the success 

 there met with, in connection with past experience 

 of a somewhat longer and wider range in this 

 country, certainly points to a future which will 

 make this method of feeding stock of the greatest 

 value to the stock and dairy farmer. The evidence 

 of the British farmer is of particular interest, in re- 

 gard to a new system of this sort, as, from his habits 

 of intensive farming, he is perhaps more qualified 

 to judge of it than his American fellow-laborer. 



THE PANAMA CANAL. 



There is no engineering enterprise now in prog- 

 ress* which has excited more general interest, or 

 the successful completion of which wUl affect 

 more deeply the concerns of the commercial na- 

 tions of the world than the Panama canal. As 

 work was begun in 1880, or perhaps more ac- 

 curately in 1881, and as the completion of the 

 undertaking was promised for 1888, it is quite 

 time to inquire what progress has been made up 

 to the present date, and what is the prospect for 

 the future. The book of Mr. J. C. Eodrigues,^ 

 which is a reprint of a series of articles written 

 for the London Financial news, gives a summary 

 of the operations from the beginning untU now, 

 with his opinion of the condition of the company, 

 the political bearing of enterprise as regards the 

 United States, and the impending catastrophe. It 

 deserves a careful perusal by every thoughtful 

 citizen, and presents a more concise, and at the 

 same time comprehensive statement of the case 

 than has as yet appeared. 



After a brief survey of preceding explorations 

 of the isthmus, he gives an account of the expedi- 

 tions of Commander Lucien Napoleon Bonaparte 

 Wyse, of the French navy, and of the concession 

 he obtained from the United States of Columbia, 

 in 1878, for a canal at the Isthmus of Panama. 

 In 1879 the ' International scientific congress,' as 

 it was called, at Paris, under the auspices of M. 

 Ferdinand de Lesseps, decided to recommend the 

 construction of a ship canal at the Isthmus of 

 Panama, to be built without locks and as an open 

 cut from ocean to ocean. Those American delegates 

 to the congress who were well fitted to judge of 



1 The Panama canal: its history, its political aspects, and 

 financial difficulties. By J. C, Rodrigues. New York, 

 /^cribner, 1885. 



the facts from personal examinations, or reports 

 of surveys at Darien, Tehuantepec, Panama, and 

 Nicaragua, and other delegates qualified by prac- 

 tical experience, opposed in vain this decision, 

 pointing out the difficulties and uncertain quanti- 

 ties which rendered a wise judgment and a reliable 

 estimate impossible at that time, and urging the 

 advantages of other sites. The enterprise, how- 

 ever, was to be carried on by Frenchmen ; the 

 assistance of M. de Lesseps was assured ; and his 

 success in carrying through the Suez canal, a far 

 different undertaking in character of materials 

 and obstacles to be overcome, was pointed to as an 

 answer to all objections. The intention appeared 

 to be to forestall any work which others might 

 undertake at points which have been and still are 

 regarded as much more favorable. 



The canal congress estimated the cost of a sea- 

 level canal at 700,000,000 francs, or £28,000,000, 

 although a sub-committee had practically put the 

 cost at 1,040,000,000 francs, and added that the 

 "execution of such works, and principally that of 

 such deep cuts, the stability of which is prob- 

 lematical, as well as the operations relating to the 

 course of the river Chagres, constitute a comphca- 

 tion of difficulties that it is impossible to estimate." 

 There was added to the prime cost 25 per cent for 

 unforeseen expenses, 5 per cent for expenses of 

 banking and administration, and 3 per cent per 

 year for interest during construction. An ' inter- 

 national commission ' visited the isthmus in 1880, 

 and reported that the canal would cost 843,000,000 

 francs, without preliminary, banking, and ad- 

 ministrative expenses, and interest during con- 

 struction, and estimating contingencies at but 10 

 per cent. They reported 75,000,000 cubic metres 

 to be excavated, in place of 46,000,000 previously 

 estimated. This estimate of cost M. de Lesseps first 

 cut down to 658,000,000 francs, and later to 530,- 

 000, 000 francs. A more extended acquaintance with 

 the problem has raised the estimate of quantity to 

 125,000,000 cubic metres. 



The dredging through the low alluvial lands 

 near the sea, and the formation of harbor works, 

 would, of course, present no difficults' ; but the two 

 rock-cuttings — the deepest at the Culebra, 820 feet 

 in width at the top, containing from 25,000,000 to 

 30,000,000 cubic metres, of wliich but a small por- 

 tion has yet been removed ; and the Emperador 

 cut, not so deep, but containing about the same 

 quantity of rock — are very formidable obstacles, 

 which will, at the rate work has as yet progTessed, 

 require many years to overcome. There is also 

 the uncertainty whether little or much water will 

 be encountered in the lower portions of these cuts. 

 The removal of rock under water will sweU the 

 cost greatly. 



