158 
cal, and botanical sections of these societies began 
to send parties of investigators annually (usually for 
the summer) to all parts of Russia. Making the best 
of their limited means, they allowed a maximum of 
four hundred or five hundred roubles a person.! 
At the instance of the same societies, larger expe- 
ditions, subsidized by the government, were sent out 
into Turkestan (Fedchenko), into Khiva (Bogdanoff), 
into the Aralo-Caspian territory (Bogdanoff, Barbotte, 
Grimm, and Alenitsyn), to the Murman coast (Bog- 
danoff, with seven students), to the White Sea (Tsen- 
kofsky and Wagner), among the Altai (Nikolsky, 
Sokoloff, Polenoff, and Krasnoff). 
Russian names occur in the foreign literature of 
natural science, even during the preceding period, 
though they are very rare, and not often important. 
But about 1860, that is, when Russian students began 
to throng to foreign universities (chiefly German), a 
rapid increase is perceptible in the number of Rus- 
sian hames appearing as contributors to foreign 
journals; and this number is steadily maintained at 
a figure previously unheard of. Even if the produc- 
tions of these first years were often of an elementary 
character, they are nevertheless important as present- 
ing a striking proof of a fact hitherto unprecedented 
in Russia; viz., that, in the very beginning of the 
period under discussion, a considerable number of 
young Russians passed through a very thorough 
course of study. The importance of this fact is 
enhanced when we recollect that our young labora- 
tories drew their first supply of workers from those 
who, during this time, studied abroad. 
Everybody who has ever been at the head of a 
newly established laboratory, will, I think, agree that 
it requires years, even in the case of an experienced 
director, to prepare two or three students for inde- 
pendent research. Now, in our case, in the seventh 
decade of the present century, the difficulty was en- 
hanced by the fact that the management of labora- 
tories was still a novelty, and the students were ill 
prepared. It is therefore not to be wondered at, that 
individual scientific activity only clearly manifested 
itself in our laboratories long after their foundation. 
This scientific activity, however, now exists in almost 
all laboratories of our country; and it shows itself in 
this, — that the working-out of scientific problems is 
not restricted to the professors alone, who may, per- 
haps, be said to derive their learning from western 
Europe. The students of the local Russian labora- 
tories, also, now take part in this work. In former 
times it was impossible, with rare exceptions, for a 
Russian to become an independent scientific worker 
without going abroad to study: at present he can 
receive and complete his education at home. 
It may not be amiss to present, in illustration of 
this change, some particularly striking figures. 
Between 1830 and 1860, I do not recall a single 
special investigation in the branches of microscopic 
anatomy, physiology, and experimental pathology, 
1 Each of these societies has a government subsidy of twenty- 
five hundred roubles (about fifteen hundred dollars), apart from 
the contributions of the members, the physico-chemical society 
alone receiving no subsidy. 
SCIENCE. 
[Vou. IIl., Now aay 
made by a university professor of pure Russian name, 
During the present period, i.e., in the course of the 
twenty years from 1863 to 1882 inclusive, more than 
six hundred and fifty investigations in these branches, 
by authors of pure Russian name, were published in 
foreign periodicals. From this number are excluded 
all Dorpat professors, and foreigners like Professor 
Gruber; also, probably, a number of Russians by birth 
and education, but bearing foreign names. . 
The most remarkable showing, however, is made 
by our chemists. During the fourteen years from 
1869 to 1882 inclusive, the journal of the Russian 
physico-chemical society published six hundred and 
seventy investigations, not including those relating 
to applications of chemistry to pharmacy, technology, 
and medicine. 
Chemistry, having from the very outset of this 
period engaged the attention of such eminent workers 
as Zinin, Butleroff, Mendeléyeff, N. Beketoff, N. N. 
Sokoloff, and others, enjoyed a more rapid develop- 
ment than all other branches of natural science. For 
a long time it occupied among the sciences the first 
place; and this place it has succeeded in retaining. 
Just after the first congress of naturalists was held 
in 1867, the chemical (now physico-chemical) society 
was founded, with a journal for the publication of 
scientific researches; and this journal became the 
organ of Russian chemists. The investigations are 
thus first published in the Russian language; but the 
German, London, and Paris chemical societies regu- 
larly receive an account of them through special cor- 
responding members, and they are also reported to the 
Italian chemical gazette. How completely the work 
of Russian chemists is recognized in western Europe, 
will appear from the statement of an eminent English 
man of science: Frankland said, that in chemistry 
there are more independent investigations published 
in Russia than in England. Our chemists, how- 
ever, take the lead not by quantity alone: there are 
branches of chemistry in which they appear among 
the best specialists; and yet the principal represen- 
tatives of Russian chemistry are engaged in researches 
extending over the entire domain of chemical knowl- 
edge. 
The development of physics, from the very nature 
of things, could not keep pace with this rapid prog- 
ress, especially as there were hardly any well-trained 
scientific men at work in this branch at the beginning 
of our period. At present, physics numbers, among 
its independent leading workers, Petrushéfsky, Lenz, 
Stolétoff, Avenarius, Shvedoff, and others. — 
The scientific activity of our botanists proved ex- 
ceedingly fertile. At the beginning of our period, 
Tsenkofsky stands out eminent indeed, but alone: in 
the course of twenty-five years, his intellectual off- 
spring has become a family of seventy-five workers ; 
and of this number we may certainly assume that 
three-quarters grew up in the Russian school. Dur- 
ing the preceding period, Russian botanists were 
almost exclusively engaged in the study of local 
floras: at present, the study of botany has been spe- 
cialized into the branches of anatomy, physiology, 
development of plants, and botanical geography. In — 
