JUNE 20, 1884.] 
anatomy, eighty-seven original researches appeared 
during this period; in physiology, a hundred and 
fifty-two. The number of special investigations in 
botanical geography during the last twenty years 
amounts to twenty, while the articles relating to local 
floras number about a hundred. 
During this period, zodlogy developed in two direc- 
tions: on the one hand, investigations of faunas, in- 
creasing considerably in quantity and quality, form 
a continuation of the preceding period; and, on the 
other hand, a new phase of zoological research is 
inaugurated by workers in the field of comparative 
anatomy, of animal histology, and of embryology. 
At the head of this last movement, fortunately, we 
find such exceedingly talented men and energetic 
workers as Kovaléfsky and Méchnikoff, who enjoy in 
Europe a reputation not less honorable than that of 
the principal representatives of our chemical school. 
This is the reason why the new movement not only 
soon extended over Russia generally, but gained a 
strong foothold; so that at present it has represen- 
tatives in every university, and unites the body of 
common workers into a Russian zodlogical school. 
A review of the development of mineralogy and 
geology in the universities during the last twenty-five 
years is embarrassed with two difficulties. In three 
of the six universities to which this article refers, 
the scientific workers of the previous epoch continue 
their activity into the present period. On the other 
hand, the mining-engineers, pari passu with the uni- 
versity-workers, begin to work zealously, and their 
common labors appear in the same publications. An 
over-nice discrimination of the work of the mining- 
engineers from the work done by the universities, 
will, however, be superfluous, when we reflect that 
the stimulation of scientific activity among the min- 
ing-engineers is primarily due to the same causes that 
infused new life into the universities themselves. 
These causes were the reforms in the mining-corps 
(now become a mining-institution) which were in the 
same direction as the new system of instruction in 
the natural science faculties. The increased activity 
among the mining-engineers, being a product of the 
same cause, merely fortifies by additional proof the 
leading idea of this article. From this point of view, 
the activity in mineralogy and geology will appear to 
have increased very considerably. Since 1869 the 
St. Petersburg mineralogical society has published 
thirteen volumes of ‘ Materials for the geology of 
Russia’ (in Russian). In the St. Petersburg society 
of naturalists alone, there were received two hundred 
and ten original communications from 1868 to 1882 
inclusive; and, in the ‘ Index to Russian literature in 
mathematics and pure and applied science’ (in Rus- 
sian), we find enumerated two hundred and seventy- 
four works (pamphlets and books) on mineralogy and 
geology for the period 1873 to 1879. In addition, it 
should be mentioned that our present university 
geologists, by practical work, have transplanted to 
Russian soil the problem of prehistoric man, and the 
application of microscopy to the investigation of 
mineral species. 
Finally, as above mentioned, the sciences of micro- 
SCIENCE. 
199 
scopic anatomy and physiology began to be cultivated 
in Russia between 1860 and 1870. ‘The first to in- 
troduce them were the Dorpat professors, the late 
Yakubovich and Ovsiannikoff. They were followed 
by asuccession of Russian specialists who had studied 
abroad between 1855 and 1865. The following data 
will show to what extent these young sciences took 
root and thrived in Russia. When in Germany, be- 
tween 1870 and 1880, the composition of histological 
and physiological text-books was undertaken by col- 
laboration, our scientific men, being recognized as 
specialists, were asked to write certain parts of these 
works. Some of them complied with this request; 
as, for instance, Babikhin and the late Ivanoff. There 
are even names to which the honor belongs of having 
established new and important methods of research: 
to Khronshchéfsky, for instance, is due the method 
of transfusion. At the present day, there is hardly 
a branch of these two sciences that has not been more 
or less successfully attacked by Russian investigators ; 
and a large proportion of their work has been done 
at home. 
Such is a general outline of the results obtained 
by our universities in natural science, thanks to the 
reforms introduced in the seventh decade of our 
century. In reality they are even greater than here 
represented, since the data at my disposition do not 
include every thing actually accomplished. Is not 
this ample evidence that the naturalists of our univer- 
sities have commendably improved their opportunity, 
and honorably fulfilled the task imposed on them? 
Not to speak of the industrial and other material ad- 
vantages always following the development of natural 
science in a country, the mere fact that this develop- 
ment exists is of great importance from an intellec- 
tual point of view, especially for novices in civilization, 
like ourselves. 
The appearance of science always marks the cul- 
minating-point in intellectual development: it is 
always and everywhere the surest touchstone of the 
capacity of a race for the highest culture. When a 
race has successfully undergone this test, it at once 
takes its place among civilized nations. When re- 
cently we mourned Turgiéneff, it was justly pointed 
out as one of his merits, that his work had fostered 
the intellectual commerce of Russians with the west. 
Did not our naturalists do the same? 
It must, however, be confessed, that, in spite of all 
this, we are still novices in science, and our young 
plantations require assiduous care. The experience 
of twenty-five years has demonstrated that the con- 
ditions favorable to development are to be sought in 
the establishment of laboratories, and in the increase 
of the staff of instructors. These conditions of prog- 
ress, therefore, must be extended in the future, as 
is done in western Europe, or they must at least be 
maintained. 
RECENT LINGUISTIC RESEARCHES. 
‘'TOPONOMASTICS,’ or the analysis of geographic 
names, is a branch of linguistics, which, on account 
of the large material and numerous publications accu- 
