where. Phosphate, potash, uranium, and some metals 

 (copper and iron, for example) are often mined in 

 large pits. Many of the metals are typically in ore 

 bodies that are best mined by underground methods. 

 Sand and gravel, dimension stone, clays, and rock for 

 aggregate are usually quarried or mined in open pits. 



Impacts of mining on forest and range lands vary 

 greatly depending upon the mineral extraction 

 method. Clearance of vegetation usually amounts to 

 an acre or two per well, less than 100 acres per under- 

 ground mine, but frequently hundreds or even thou- 

 sands of acres per surface mine. However, this is 

 necessary to obtain access to the minerals and to pro- 

 tect against fire. In some areas, construction of access 

 roads and other ancillary facilities such as power lines 

 may have greater impacts than the mining itself. 

 Similarly, prospecting for minerals, especially for 

 uranium and other metals, may have greater impacts 

 on the surface than actual mining. 



Removal of vegetation obviously affects timber 

 and forage production. It also results in a change of 

 wildlife habitat, often with substantial effects on 

 associated wildlife populations. Impacts on fish habi- 

 tat can be drastic, too, but it is usually possible to 

 avoid vegetation clearance adjacent to streams and 

 bodies of water. Where this is not possible, mitigation 

 measures are necessary. 



Effects of mineral development on air quality and 

 on water yield and quality also vary greatly depend- 

 ing upon the extraction method. Dust, combustion. 



Prospecting and access to mining sites may have greater surface 



impacts than actual mining. 



engine emission, erosion, sedimentation, water pollu- 

 tion, interruption of hydrologic regimes, and reduc- 

 tions in water yield are associated with many mineral 

 operations. These effects tend to be extensive in the 

 case of surface mines and more local with respect to 

 underground mines. Usually, little or no impact is 

 experienced from wells if preventive measures are 

 taken. Preventive and mitigating measures, designed 

 to insure compliance with applicable laws, regula- 

 tions, and standards, can minimize impacts on air 

 and water resources but cannot eliminate them. 

 Except for the large excavations in bedrock, reclama- 

 tion is normally required once the mineral operations 

 are completed. 



Up to July 1, 1977, it is estimated that more than 

 5.7 million acres of the United States had been uti- 

 lized for mining. '2 While this is a large area, it can be 

 put in perspective by noting that mining has dis- 

 turbed only about 0.25 percent of the land in the 

 United States and that about 40 percent of this has 

 been reclaimed. The data in table 2.12, adapted from 

 a Bureau of Mines publication, shows the relation- 

 ships between land utilized by mining and land that 

 has been reclaimed during the period 1930-7 1.'^ 



Table 2.13, prepared by the Bureau of Mines, 

 shows cumulative mining areas utilized and re- 

 claimed, by section, region, and State, for the period 

 1930-71. 



Energy resource development, particularly for coal 

 and possibly oil shale, and the mining of copper, 

 sand, gravel, and phosphate rock are likely to have 

 the greatest future impacts on forest and range lands. 

 Over the next few decades, the area disturbed may 

 increase and this disturbance could have important 

 local impacts. However, the area involved should 

 continue to be small relative to the 1.6 billion acres 

 classified as forest and range land. Moreoever, 

 requirements for surface reclamation are becoming 

 more stringent. The Surface Mining Control and 

 Reclamation Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-87), which requires 

 State regulation of surface mining for coal, will affect 

 reclamation on forest and range lands throughout the 

 country. Many States, on their own, have been adopt- 

 ing strict reclamation requirements for coal and other 

 minerals. Woody plant cover is important in stabili- 

 zation and rehabilitation of disturbed sites for ero- 

 sion control, amenity values, and timber production. 

 Better methods of revegetating disturbed lands with 

 woody plants are needed for expanded rehabilitation. 

 In addition, integrated pest management systems will 

 be needed to meet quality standards set for protection 



'2 Soil Conservation Service, unpublished estimate, Feb. 1978. 

 " Bureau of Mines, Land utilization and reclamation in the min- 

 ing industry, 1930-71. I. C. 8642, 54 p. 1974. 



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