40 Richard R. Repasky and Phillip D. Doerr 



(Johnson 1980). Additionally, data in this study were severely non- 

 normal. Calculations were performed with the Statistical Analysis System 

 (SAS Institute 1982a, 1982b). Wilcoxon two-sample tests were performed 

 with a user-written program, and home ranges were delineated and 

 calculated with a procedure written by the senior author. 



Behavior 



Behavioral observations were made during the final 3 days of each 

 tracking bout. Three 2-hour observation periods were conducted each 

 day, beginning 1 hour after sunrise, 1 hour before the solar noon, and 3 

 hours before sunset. In May, when nestlings were being tended and 

 tracking was difficult, observation periods were 3 hours long, and the 

 beginning and ending times of the midday and evening periods were 

 adjusted accordingly. During each observation period, a series of focal 

 individuals was selected for sampling. When an observation bout was to 

 begin, an individual was randomly selected from the birds available and 

 followed for 5 minutes or until it flew from sight or became lost amidst 

 the group. Instantaneous samples (Altmann 1974) of behavior and 

 substrate were spoken into a cassette tape recorder at 15-second intervals 

 that were timed with an electronic metronome. 



Behaviors were lumped into functional categories. Categories 

 included four types of foraging behavior, namely (1) gleaning, 

 (2) peering and poking, (3) pecking, and (4) other, and non-foraging. 

 Gleaning was picking food items from exposed bark surfaces as the bird 

 moved forward or backward. Peering and poking consisted of peering 

 into and poking the bill into bark crevices in search of prey. Side-to-side 

 head movement was considerably greater than for gleaning. Movement 

 along the substrate was slower, and stops were frequent. Pecking was 

 subsurface foraging, including the pecking (percussion) and scaling 

 categories of others (Jackson 1970, Ramey 1980, Hooper and Lennartz 

 1981). Pecking was perpendicular to the plane of bark when excavating 

 for prey, or it was parallel to the bark plane to dislodge pieces. Scaling, 

 the latter behavior, usually followed or preceeded pecking at a foraging 

 spot. "Other" included obtaining seeds or fruits, drinking, and obtaining 

 bone fragments. If a prey item was being handled at the time of 

 sampling, the foraging technique used in capture was recorded as the 

 current behavior. Post-capture handling of food for fledglings was 

 classed as feeding of young instead of by the method of capture. The 

 consequence of this was small because the process was a rare event and 

 was seldom recorded. Non-foraging activities included all other behaviors. 



Substrate classifications consisted of tree type, location on the tree, 

 and the vitality of each. Tree species were lumped into pines and 

 hardwoods. Locations were trunk below the tree crown, trunk within 



