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sharp limits of distribution or composition of the hard-wood forest are 
possible. Basswood, Maple, Elm, and Ash, the principal hard woods 
aside from Oak and Birch, all enter into the composition of the hard- 
woods forest in nearly all parts of this area, thongh in widely varying 
proportions. Thus, in one locality Elm formed 30 per cent and more of 
the woods, while in another, but few miles distant and with soil, drain- 
age, etc., alike, the E]m is nearly replaced by Basswood or Birch. Nor is 
it easy to draw lines with reference to size and quality development. 
Good timber on good soils passes by easy stages into inferior timber on 
poorer soils, and it is but fair to say that some good timber grows in 
every county. In general, it is an unquestionable and well-recognized 
fact that the hard-wood timber grows smaller and scrubbier northward, 
and when the extremes, as, for instance, the hard woods of Dunn or of 
Shawano, are compared with those of [ron and Douglas counties this 
truth is quiteapparent; but the transition is gradual, and any apparent 
lines of demarcation generally are explained by differences in soil rather 
than effects of climate. In the southern portion of the area under con- 
sideration the hard woods attained considerable dimensions. Oak, 
Basswood, and Elm 90 to 100 feet high and over 30 inches thick are not 
unusual. In general, however, the mature timber is under 30 inches in 
diameter and under 75 feet in height, and on many large tracts shorter 
than 60 feet and under 20 inches diameter. 
Generally the hard woods are ‘short bodied” as compared to conifers; 
they furnish per tree about 24 logs, and in the northern counties scant 13 
logs, of which it takes 7 to 10 to the thousand. Of the different kinds, 
Basswood and Elm are tallest and longest in body, the former quite 
commonly cutting 3 and even 34 logs per tree, and the latter often fur- 
nishing ship timbers 60 to 70 feet in length. Birch is generally the 
shortest, and large trees often furnish but a single log. As might be 
expected, much of the older hard-wood timber is in all stages of degen- 
eration and decay, so that a considerable portion of it is defective and 
the cut consequently wasteful. The Oak, being naturally the longest 
lived and having the most durable wood, is least affected; ‘it cuts 
sound ;” Basswood, Birch, and Ash are about alike and quite defective 
when old; while of all hard woods the Maple is the most affected. 
With this tree especially the fault seems not entirely a matter of age, 
but is apparently largely due to injury in consequence of frost—‘‘frost 
cracks,” with their peculiar rampartlike thickenings or ridges along 
their edge, being very common. These cracks naturally admit fungi and 
insects, and thus introduce decay. This defect in Maple is most strongly 
complained of in the central and northern parts and least in the south- 
east and southwest, where a great deal of fine Maple occurs. 
Concerning the yields in hard woods, opinions differ widely, but it is 
believed that the estimates are generally too low and are commonly 
deficient. There are several reasons for this, the chief of which are 
lack of experience both in estimating and milling of hard woods, the 
