IMPROVING THE CROP. 287 



Among tlie most valuable in the northeastern woods we should mention the white pine — king 

 of a n — the white ash, white and chestnut oak, hickories, tulip tree, black walnut, and black cherry, 

 the last three being now nearly exhausted 5 next, spruce and hemlock, red pine, sugar maple, 

 chestnut, vaiious oaks of the black or reel oak tribe, several species of ash and birch, black locust ; 

 lastly, elms and soft maples, basswood, poplars, and sycamore. 



Now, by the common practice of culling the best it is evident that gradually all the best trees 

 of the best kinds aie taken out, leaving only inferior trees or inferior kinds — the weeds among 

 trees, if one may call them such — and thus the wood lot becomes well-nigh useless. 



It does not supply that for which it was intended; the soil, which was of little use for anything 

 but a timber crop before, is still further deteriorated under this treatment, and being compacted 

 by the constant running of cattle, the starting of a crop of seedlings is made nearly impossible. 

 It would not pay to turn it into tillage ground or pasture; the farm has by so much lost in value. 

 In other words, instead of using the interest on his capital, interest and capital have been used 

 up together; the goose that laid the golden egg has been killed. 



This is not necessary if only a little system is brought into the management of the wood lot 

 and the smallest care is taken to avoid deterioration and secure reproduction. 



IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS 



The first care should be to improve the crop in its composition. Instead of culling it of its 

 best material, it should be culled of its weeds, the poor kinds, which we do not care to reproduce, 

 and which, like all other weeds, propagate themselves only too readily. This weeding must not, 

 however, be done all at once, as it could be in a field crop, for in a full-grown piece of woodland 

 each tree has a value, even the weed trees, as soil cover. 



The great secret of success in all crop production lies in the regulating of water supplies; the 

 manuiing in part and the cultivating entirely, as well as drainage and irrigation, are means to 

 this end. In forestry these means are usually not practicable, and hence other means are resorted 

 to. The principal of these is to keep the soil as much as possible under cover, either by the shade 

 which the foliage of the tall trees furnishes, or by that from the underbrush, or by the litter wliich 

 accumulates and in decaying forms a humus cover, a most excellent mulch. 



A combination of these three conditions, viz, a dense crown cover, woody underbrusli where 

 the crown cover is interrupted, and a heavy layer of well-decomposed humus, gives the best result. 

 Under such conditions, first of all, the rain, being intercepted by the foliage and litter, reaches the 

 ground only gradually, and therefore does not compact the soil as it does in the open field, but 

 leaves it granular and open, so that the water can readily penetrate and move in the soil. Secondly, 

 the surface evaporation is considerably reduced by the shade and lack of air circulation in the dense 

 woods, so that more moisture remains for the use of the trees. When the shade of the crowns 

 overhead (the so-called " crown cover," or u canopy/') is perfect but little undergrowth will be seen; 

 but where the crown cover is interrupted or imperfect an undergrowth will appear. If this is 

 composed of young trees, or even shrubs, it is an advantage, but if of weeds, and especially grass, 

 it is a misfortune, because these transpire a great deal more water than the woody plants and 

 allow the soil to deteriorate in structure and therefore in water capacity. 



Some weeds and grasses, to be sure, are capable of existing where but little light reaches the 

 soil. When they appear it is a sign to the forester that he must be careful not to thin out the 

 crown cover any more. When the more light-needing weeds and grasses appear it is a sign that 

 too much light reaches the ground, and that the soil is already deteriorated. If this state 

 continues, the heavy drain which the transpiration of these weeds makes upon the soil moisture, 

 without any appreciable conservative action by their shade, will injure the soil still further. 



The overhead shade or crown cover may be imperfect because there are not enough trees on 

 the ground to close up the interspaces with their crowns, or else because the kinds of trees which 

 make up the forest do not yield much shade; thus it can easily be observed that a beech, a sugar 

 maple, a hemlock is so densely foliaged that but little light reaches the soil through its crown 

 canopy, while am ash, an oak, a larch, when full grown, in the forest, allows a good deal of light to 

 penetrate. 



Hence, in our weeding process for the improvement of the wood crop, we must be careful not 

 to interrupt the crown cover too much, and thereby deteriorate the soil conditions. And for the 



