These bad practices, the results, and the remedies, apply also to loading cars 
and trucks. Shadburne (90) noted that most truck-transit damage occurred to 
apples in containers located at the rear of the trailers. 
Transportation, Warehousing, and Hauling 
When wooden boxes of standard-pack apples are loaded on their sides in 
cars or trucks, it is not uncommon to find all apples in contact with the sides 
of the boxes to be flattened in the bottom layers of the shipments (28, 86). 
Bruises produced by jolting and vibration of the standard-pack box against the 
ear floor can be largely prevented by use of cushion liners and by careful 
handling of the boxes (83, 86). Smith and co-workers (94) found that the use 
in boxes of individual fruit wrappers, tier pads, and corrugated pads cut 
bruising losses 53 percent in transcontinental tests. The Washington State 
Apple Commission (36) reported on a stationary machine to simulate transit tests 
of various types of packing and their efficiency in reducing bruising. 
Woodward (120) noted that railroad shipments may produce more bruising 
than truck shipments; but he recorded that the test shipments were to only one 
destination, were from one point of origin, and that his findings were true for 
a limited size shipment. 
The question of what causes damage-in-transit to apples sometimes arises. 
A serious type of transit bruising of apples sometimes occurs in the bottom 
layers of boxes on the lower sides of the fruits. This often is thought to be 
due to freezing. Rose, McColloch, and Fisher (86) stated that apples both 
bruised and frozen in transit usually will show flattened areas, 1 1/2 to 2 
inches in diameter, somewhat sunken and soft toward the center, and of a dull- 
brown or slate color over most of the surface. Transit bruises are smaller in 
diameter, flat instead of sunken, the skin covering them is not slate colored, 
and the flesh beneath is firm. In virtually all cases of severely frozen 
apples, sunken spots, about as deep as wide, develop at places that were bruised 
while the apple was still frozen. See also (42). 
Bogardus and Burt (9) found that increasing the productivity of warehouse 
workers did not require rougher handling of produce. They found that men with 
good work habits could handle as many packages with care as poor workers who 
gave the produce rough and careless handling. 
Herrick and co-workers cautioned that warehouse and platform floors 
should be kept free of holes and rough places. They observed that such damaged 
places not only slow down warehouse handling, but they also cause additional 
bruises on the produce when it is trucked over these areas (51). 
Van Waes' (104) data showed that bruising of even carefully handled 
McIntosh apples increased from 33 to 49 percent from the warehouse to the re- 
tailer. It is not unreasonable that any additional handling or transportation 
produces additional chances for bruises to occur. Clowes (22) pointed out that 
most preduce sold in New York City moved through at least two wholesalers or 
jobbers, and that a substantial quantity moved through three such handlers be- 
fore reaching the retailer. Scott and Leed (89) reported that apples delivered 
directly by growers to retailers were 50 percent less bruised than were similar 
apples delivered by wholesalers. Perkins (78) also found less bruising occurred 
when bagged apples were delivered from the farm to the retailer directly rather 
than through warehouses. When apples 99 percent bruise-free were delivered 
directly to retail stores, they arrived with only 9 percent added bruising. 
When similar lots were moved to retailers through wholesalers, they arrived 
147 
