GEOaRAPHY. 35 



mark. 7. The Seven Anglo-Saxon Monarchies in England : Kent, Wessex, 

 Sussex, Northumberland (previously divided into Bernicia and Deiria), 

 Mercia, Essex, and East- Angles ; these were all united in 827 into one, by 

 Egbert, king of Wessex, who called himself king of England. In addition 

 to these, there were the dominions of the Britons in Western England 

 (Cornwallis, Cumberland) and Wales (North Wales or Cambria, South 

 Wales or Damnonia) ; also of the Picts in Eastern Scotland, and of the 

 Scots or original inhabitants of Ireland, in North-western Scotland, both 

 united in 838 by King Kenneth II., together with many small powers in 

 Ireland. These last-mentioned were divided into four sub-kingdoms : 

 Ulster, Connaught, Leinster, and Munster. 8. In Spain and Portugal 

 there existed at this time two governments ; one the Arabic kingdom of 

 Cordova (Al Hakem, 796-822), established by Abderahman I. in 756, and 

 embracing the greater part of Spain and the whole of Portugal ; the other, 

 the Christian kingdom of Asturia or Oviedo, in the north-west (Alphonso 

 the Chaste, 791-835). Count Garcias (853-870) first established the small 

 kingdom of Navarre, after the Gascons in Navarre had in 831 withdrawn 

 from the Frankish rule. 9. In Lower Italy, after the downfall of the 

 Longobardian kingdom, there existed an independent principality, Benevent, 

 established by Arigis, who, in 787, submitted to Charlemagne. Nevertheless, 

 his son Grimoald revolted in 793, and died in 806, unconquered. His 

 successor again submitted to a stronger power in 812, but in 818 Benevent 

 was again independent. About 840 was established the Principality of 

 Salerno. 



Plate 12 represents Europe at the time of the Crusades (1100-1250). In 

 the centre of Europe, in Germany and the neighboring countries, we find 

 the Roman-German Monarchy, whose kings, since the time of Otto the 

 Great (962), had, for the most part, been crowned emperors and kings of 

 Italy. Subject to them were the Duchies of Swabia, Bavaria, Carinthia, 

 Saxony, Lothringia, &c. The kingdom of Burgundy and Arelat, in 1 032, came 

 into the possession of the Emperor Conrad, who was crowned in Geneva, 

 king of Arelat ; subsequently, however, the greater part of the kingdom 

 broke up into independent governments, or came under the rule of the 

 French. The north and largest portion of Italy belonged to the Monarchy, 

 only the smaller part of Lower Italy to the Greek Empire. By degrees 

 there arose in Upper Italy the Republics of Milan (1056), Pisa, Genoa, 

 Pavia, (fee. Lower Italy, however, excepting Naples and Benevent, became 

 subject to the Normans, who erected several new states. These were : 1. 

 The county Aversa and principality Capua, the latter established in 1062 

 by Count Richard I. 2. Apulia, a county from 1043, and a duchy (in 

 connexion with Calabria and Sicily) from 1060. 3. Sicily, snatched by 

 Count Roger in 1060-1090 from the Arabs. The universal supremacy of 

 the Pope dates from the gift of the Marcgravine Matilda of Tuscany, who, 

 in 1077 or 1079, bestowed upon the Church all her extended possessions and 

 properties, consisting of Tuscany, Mantua, Parma, Reggio, Piacenza, 

 Ferrara, Modena, and a part of Mark Ancona. Nevertheless, after the 

 death of the Emperor in 1115, only a small portion of her goods went to the 



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