HISTORY AND ETHNOLOGY. 47 



the rostrum of a ship. An as lihralis {as wris gravis^ as ceneus) was equal 

 to about 40 cents, and after its last depreciation, only little over one cent. 

 The denominations of the as multiplied, were : — dupondius^ sestertius^ 

 tressis, quatrussis^ (juinquessis^ i&c.^ up to centussis. 



Silver coins, as above remarked, came into use 269 B.C. The pound of 

 silver was worth about $13 20. It was subdivided into 100 denarii^ worth 

 at difterent times from 10 to 18 copjper as each. The dena/r was also called 

 higatus or qioadrigatus^ on account of the coinage representing a double or 

 quadruple span. 



The half-denarius had on one side an image of the goddess of victory, 

 and was therefore called victoriatus. The quarter denarius was called 

 nummus sestertius (semis-tertius), and was marked LLS, or IIS, or HS, 

 meaning ducB lihrce et semissis. 



Gold, when first introduced, counted 96 gold denarii (aurei) to the 

 pound, but tow^ards the close of the republic only 40. The value of gold as 

 compared with silver was originally as 10 : 1 ; in the best days of the 

 republic as 12 J : 1 ; and under the emperors as 14 : 1. An aureus, or 

 solidus, as it was called during the empire, was worth 25 denarii. 



Large sums of money were usually reckoned by asses or sestertii. The 

 denarius was originally assayed and stamped after the Grecian drachma ; 

 hence the Roman writers frequently use the word drachma for denarius, 

 even at the time when the denarius had much depreciated in value, and 

 bore to the drachma the proportion of 28 : 25. One thousand sestertii 

 were called a sestertium (about $35). A very common coin was the 

 sextans. The quadrans was also much used : it bore the image of a ship. 



Wc'jgive fac-similes of several coins. PI. 15, figs. 2-10, copper pieces; 

 figs. 11-15, silver coins ; figs. 16-19, gold pieces, all belonging to the time 

 of the republic (consular coins) ; figs. 20-25 exhibit the currency of the 

 empire, Y\z.,fig. 20, a copper piece ; figs. 21-24, silver pieces ; and fig. 25, 

 a gold piece. PI. 18, figs. 43-46, matrices for coins and medals ; and 

 figs. 47-56, Gallic coins and medals. 



In the training of the young, in ancient times, the improvement of the 

 body rather than of the mind was considered of importance. It consisted 

 for the most part in instilling early the habits and principles of an 

 honest citizen ; also in rehearsing old ballads and the laws of the Twelve 

 Tables. But when arts and sciences had been introduced by the Greeks, 

 they procured Greek slaves (pgedagogi) to instruct them in the elementary 

 branches, whereupon they were sent to schools to acquire knowledge of 

 different kinds, as grammar, rhetoric, philosophy, and mathematics, without, 

 however, neglecting regular gymnastic exercises. At the age of fifteen 

 the young Roman was declared a citizen, and solemnly invested with the 

 toga mrilis {pi. 12, figs. 11, 12, Roman youths). After the ceremony he 

 continued his previous style of training, but enjoyed access to the conver- 

 sation of great men, was present at public transactions, and by foreign 

 travel, especially visiting Greek cities, he completed his preparation for the 

 duties of manhood and active life. 



The dress of the Romans was at first very plain ; consisting of the toga 



219 



