38 MILITARY SCIENCES. 



sometimes, however, very small for knights {fig. 76), with a boss and with- 

 out ; of wood plated with iron, often entirely of hammered steel ; adorned 

 very frequently with tasteful ornaments, inlaid with gold and silver, or 

 gilded. In state processions they were often entirely of silver or even of 

 gold. One particular kind of Saracenic shield {fig. 75) was high-vaulted 

 and had a boss, but this is seldom seen. The shield was frequently stuffed ; 

 always, however, lined with cloth or velvet, and sometimes fringed {figs. 

 72, 75, and 76). 



Next to the shield the helmet is the oldest defensive arm. It was 

 made of hammered and also of cast iron. The cap, which is the oldest 

 form of the helmet, received afterwards a projection which extended over 

 the nose, but left the eyes and cheeks free. Such helmets appear in the 

 10th and 11th centuries. The first visor we find in the year 1155, and at 

 the time of the third crusade they had become common. The first 

 visors were immovable, and consisted of cross-bars riveted to the helmet. 

 From the middle of the 13th century the helmet was rounded above, and in 

 the 14th and 15th centuries forms as m pi. 16, figs. 1, 2, and 3, are general. 

 To the upper helm iron plates were added to protect the throat and back 

 of the neck ; the visor, however, was very diflferently shaped and contrived 

 to raise aiid lower. It consisted either of several small iron bars {fig. 3), 

 or of plates with openings opposite the eyes and mouth only {fig. 2), or of 

 plates cut or pierced like a grate or sieve {fig. 1). Besides these knights' 

 helmets, however, the simple, close-fitting head-piece, pot, or skull-cap 

 remained in use for the attendants, grooms, footmen, and men-at-arms 

 {figs. 4-7). Even the knights when not expecting immediate combat, yet 

 wishing to be protected, wore such, but of much more elegant forms. PL 

 17, figs. 1-4, and pi. 18, figs. 4, 8, 9, 10, and 11, give various examples of 

 knights' helmets. As to the decorations of the helmet and the material of 

 which it was made, we find it sometimes of iron and sometimes of steel, or 

 even, for state occasions, of gold and silver. The steel ones were either 

 painted entirely black, or the steel was blued and variously ornamented, 

 engraved, inlaid with gold and silver, striped and studded, or even set with 

 precious stones. Kings wore crowns upon their helmets ; counts and barons 

 also often wore the coronets of pearl belonging to their rank upon their 

 helms. In the 13th and 14th centuries horse-tails were worn on the 

 helmet-crest, afterwards plumes of feathers took the place of them. In 

 later years, when heraldic bearings became common, symbols proper to the 

 bearing were often placed upon the helm, as animals, horns, wings, human 

 figures, &c. These decorations became general in the 15th century. 



The Germans and their kindred nations received mail-harness from the 

 Romans, whose cuirass in the latter ages had a form widely diflfering from 

 that first given to it, for the horsemen were completely covered with iron. 

 The different members were so protected, by means of stout, scale-shaped 

 plates of iron, lapped one over another at the edges, that they retained the 

 power of motion. The helmet closed around the face, so that projectiles 

 could penetrate only at those places where openings were left for the eyes 

 and for breathing. Even the horses were equipped in a similar manner ; 

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