WARFARE OF MODERN TIMES. 79 



as individuals, attained the requisite dexterity and precision in their move- 

 nnents by gymnastic exercises, requires great attention, and every army, 

 therefore, has its own system of instruction, according to which the neces- 

 sary exercises are performed. As these systems differ essentially from each 

 other, we can give here only a general outline of the principal evolutions. 



The fundamental principle which must prevail in all movements and 

 passings from one place to another is this, that every movement shall be 

 effected in the shortest possible time and with the utmost possible simpli- 

 city ; the first, in order that the troops, when such movements are made 

 under the enemy's fire, shall be exposed to it, inactive and defenceless, for 

 the least time possible ; the second, in order to avoid that confusion, which, 

 in complicated manoeuvres under fire, only too readily arises. 



The facings of single files in place are either quarter facings, to the right 

 or left (right face, left face), whereby the man so changes his front that the 

 new one is perpendicular to the old, or half-facings (about face), in 

 which the man brings his face in the direction which his back had at first. 

 Different armies require these movements to be made, either always to the 

 right or always to the left. Between these principal facings come the 

 eighth facings (right half- face, left half- face) and the three -eighths facings, 

 right or left, the nature of which is given by the name. These facings are 

 made in place and on the march alike. The manner of march (the pace) 

 is different in different armies ; there are generally two distinct kinds, the 

 parade step of 60 paces to the minute, and the double or quick step of 90 

 to 120 paces per minute ; in many armies, however, there is only a medium 

 time of 100 to 105 paces per minute, and all quicker movements are made 

 in a trot. In the American service there are three times or paces, viz. 

 common time, 90 paces to the minute ; quick time, 120 paces ; and 

 double quick time, 140 paces ; the last is a trot. 



Where the troops are to be exercised in bodies the disposition in rank 

 and file takes place. In rank the men stand so that each one can feel 

 lightly the elbow of 'the file on his right and left ; this feeling (touch) is not 

 to be lost even when on the march. The formation is either in two or in 

 three ranks, so disposed that between each rank there is an interval of about 

 three fourths of a yard, to give the rear men free space for their motions ; 

 the men who stand one behind the other form a file. The company forms 

 usually two platoons, rarely three, and the platoons are again divided into 

 sections, which must contain not more than six nor less than four files. 

 (In the x\merican service the platoon is divided into two sections only.) 

 On the right and left flank of each platoon stands an officer, and in rear of 

 each a non-commissioned officer, who steps immediately into the officer's 

 place whenever he loses it. The rest of the commissioned and non- 

 commissioned are dispersed behind the platoons (file-closers), or, when 

 sections are formed, pass to the flanks of these. 



The direction in rank (dress) is attained when each file, keeping the 

 shoulders square and without turning the head, can just see the breast of 

 the second man on his right or left. When, however, the whole line is to 

 take a new direction, this is done on particular objects (points). For this 



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