HISTORY OF NAVIGATION. d 



used as the signal of victory. If an apluslre was placed on the prow, it 

 generally had the shape of a swan's neck (figs. 6 and 7), though the form 

 varied {figs. 1 and 2), and served to fasten the ropes on landing. The 

 flaff-staff was at the stern, and bore the flag inscribed with the emblems of 

 the ship {figs. 12 and 13, and;?/. 2, figs. 7 and 10). 



At the prow was the figure-head, the symbol from which the ship took 

 its name. This was a boar's head {pi. 1, figs. 3 and 4), a dog's head 

 (fig. 10), or some other image. The tutelar god was usually at the stern. 



The vessel was propelled by oars (pi. 2, fig. 16), which were made of 

 tough wood, in one piece, and plated with iron. The size of the vessel was 

 determined by their number. The rudders or steering oars were shorter, 

 but of greater breadth (pi. 2, fig. 15), and fitted into holes prepared for 

 them in the sides of the ship (pi. I, figs. 11 and 12, pi. 2, fig. 7). Some- 

 times the rudder was worked on the side (figs. 6 and 11). A handle 

 (ansa) was generally attached to the upper end (pi. 1, figs. 11 and 12). 

 The anchor originally had only one fluke (pi. 2, fig. 14 ") attached to a 

 heavy shank. It afterwards received the shape, ^o-. 14, and finally as in 

 fig. 13, with a ring above for the cable, and one below for the buoy. The 

 ancient anchors sometimes had three or four flukes. The masts of vessels 

 were at first low, and made to lift out. There was usually but one in the 

 middle of the ship (figs. 1 and 9), afterwards a second mast was rigged 

 near the stem. The masts of war vessels were fitted up with a sort of 

 basket containing slingers and archers (pi. 1, figs. 13). The ropes were 

 of flax, hemp, palm-leaves, or papyrus ; but the sails were of an inconve- 

 nient shape, and seldom more than one in a ship. They were both square 

 and triangular, among the Romans generally triangular. At first they were 

 constructed of rushes ; afterwards they were woven, and colored black or 

 red, as a token of mourning, victory, or the like. A second sail, usually 

 triangular, was sometimes used at the prow, similar to the modern spritsail. 

 The various forms and uses of the sails are shown in pis. 1 and 2. 



The usual materials for ships were the wood of the pine and fir. The 

 Egyptians and Phoenicians built them of cedar. Iron nails were at first 

 used, then copper, and the seams were caulked with rushes, tow, and hemp, 

 and payed over with wax or a compound of melted wax and rosin. The 

 planks were put on in double thicknesses and covered with leaden plates. 



2. Kinds of Ships. The ancients had : 1. Row-vessels and sail-vessels. 

 Merchantmen were usually sail-ships. Men-of-war used sails only on the 

 voyage, but in action the ship was moved by oars. 2. Covered and open 

 vessels. Merchantmen had no deck, and when they used oars only one 

 row of them ; but ships of war had a deck, which was also the place for 

 action. There were, however, some ships of war without a deck, and in 

 that case they had only one bank of oars. The decked vessels often had 

 tvvo or three banks of oars, and as many decks one over the other. 3. 

 Long and round vessels. Merchantmen were usually oval, but men-of war 

 were always longer. The long vessels were of different burdens ; the 

 lighter kind were always open, and were used by pirates. 



We come now to a point which is not yet settled among the learned, 



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