HISTORY OF NAVIGATION. 13 



in the year 1560. In the thirteenth century, galleys were the only vessels 



of war employed on the Mediterranean ; in the fourteenth century they 



were divided into three classes, and in the sixteonth century appear to have 



passed beyond the Mediterranean ; but in the middle of the seventeenth 



century they went out of general use, being now employed only as coasting 



vessels. The galleys had twenty-five oars on each side, which were moved 



together by beams moving with them. The benches, on which five men 



sat for every oar, were built on the outside of the vessel. A passage ran 



through the middle of the galley, which served for the protection of the 



cargo and the quarters of the men, and through which the captain passed 



back and forth. The whole was protected from the rays of the sun by a 



sort of tent. Five guns usually stood on the prow [pi. S,Jig. 2), and on 



the side, several swivels and swans'-necks. At the stern (pi. 4, Jig. 3) were 



the emblem and name of the galley, with the captain's state-room, and 



usually several six-pounders. Tiie galleys carried two masts of moderate 



height with triangular sails, the largest of which was unfurled only in a 



light wind. There was sometimes also a small mizen-mast. The principal 



galley was called the reale; the next, the patron or captain. Small galleys 



of from sixteen to twenty oars were called demi-galleys, and those with 



broad sterns bastards. The convoys had a complete military organization, 



the commander holding a council of war with the captain and oflicers of 



the galleys. The most exact directions were given with regard to lading 



and manning the vessels. Thus, for example, the vessels of the convoy 



destined to Flanders must be manned with 200 free seamen, among whom 



were 180 rowers and 12 archers. The freight must not exceed 140 tons, 



60 tons being articles of merchandise. At times of pressing danger, 30 



archers were taken instead of 12. Since Venice has belonged to the 



Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, and with that to Austria, her marine has 



been absorbed in the Austrian. 



4. Scandinavians and Russians. The northern nations of Europe, 

 especially the Scandinavians, were skilful navigators as early as the 

 fourth century. In the sixth century we have accounts of the sea-kings 

 {Vikings), who dwelt on the headlands and followed piracy. In the year 

 872, Ingulf and Hjorleif and several other noble Normans fled from the 

 tyranny of King Harold Harfagger to Iceland, which was then almost 

 uninhabited, but in 925 the population amounted to 80,000, who lived in a 

 well organized state and gained their support partly by commerce and partly 

 by piracy. The discovery of America has been ascribed to them by Danish 

 antiquarians, with a show of proof found in some alleged Runic inscriptions 

 on ancient monumental stones in Rhode Island and Connecticut, but 

 their arguments seem to be destitute of all historical validity. 



5. Netherlanders. The navigation of the Netherlands was of great 

 importance in the middle ages. Their various commercial relations 

 demanded a large mercantile marine, together with a powerful navy for its 

 protection. The Dutch marine, accordingly, during a part of the seven- 

 teenth century was the largest in Europe. Hence great attention was paid 

 to the art of ship-building. In consequence the Dutch ships were of a 



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