SHIP BUILDING. 43 



wooden grate is placed over them. In ships of war, nearly all the liatch- 

 ways are provided with convenient ladders, but in merchantmen only those 

 which lead into the cabin and forecastle. The ship is reached from the 

 water by ladders, called accommodation ladders, extending at the forward 

 end of the quarter deck from the water to the sides. One is on the star- 

 board side and another on the larboard. (If one stands at the stern of a 

 ship and looks forward, the side on the right of the mast is called the star- 

 board, and on the left the larboard). The accommodation ladders are of 

 different kinds ; those on the starboard side are used only by the officers and 

 visitors. In ships of war there is a broad wooden ladder held obliquely by 

 supports, and for the sole use of the captain and superior officers ; the 

 ladder ropes are covered with red or green cloth. Besides these there are 

 state ladders, with iron railings and landings, used when the ship is visited 

 by admirals or royal personages ; ladies and invalids are drawn up on the 

 deck in an arm chair, which is raised by a tackle attached to the main-yard. 



The mast steps are blocks of stout timber, surrounding the heel of the 

 mast ; those for the foremast and mainmast are on the kelson, and those for 

 the mizen-mast on the beams of the lower deck. 



The chain-wales are strong planks bolted edgeways against the sides of a 

 vessel, abreast or abaft of the masts, and serving to keep the shrouds from 

 the sides of the vessel ; they are fastened above and below with knees, 

 clamps, and chains, to the planks and timbers. 



The ship's pumps (pi. 10, fig. 10) stand near the mainmast and abut below 

 between the timbers, where the water which finds its way into the ship is col- 

 lected. In large ships of war they do not rise above the lower deck ; together 

 with the masts, they are surrounded by a case of strong boards to protect 

 them from injury. A is the pump-stock ; B, the upper barrel ; C, the upper 

 box, and D, the lower box, both with suction and pressure valves ; E is the 

 support for the handle ; and G, the upper case, with a spout. Merchantmen 

 usually have only two pumps on each side ; men-of-war from two to four, 

 according to their size. Chain pumps are used in the British navy, which 

 are worked with wheels or drums, and have been found very effective. 



The capstan (pL 9, fig- 26) is a windlass to heave up the anchor, or to raise 

 other heavy burdens ; it consists of an upright shaft, in the shape of a trun- 

 cated cone, around which the rope which lifts the burden is wound ; in the 

 upper part there are square holes, into which the sailors thrust the hand- 

 spikes in order to turn the capstan ; at some distance below there are 

 notches, in which are placed iron pawls, to prevent a recoil. Large ships 

 of war have capstans with internal wheel-work ; such vessels have three 

 capstans. The main capstan is placed on the lower deck, abaft the main- 

 mast, and its shaft extends to the kelson ; above, it passes through the 

 beams of the upper deck, forming a second capstan, which increases the 

 power of the lower one. The forward capstan stands on the upper deck, 

 between the mainmast and the foremast, and the other capstan on the 

 forecastle. 



The common windlass (pi. iO, Jig. 11) is used in merchantmen ; it stands 

 on the forecastle, between the foremast and the prow, extending horizontally 



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