138 THE FINE ARTS. 
a corresponding object in nature as a model, whose smallest parts he might 
compare with their representation upon a plane. Drawing from nature is 
most efficient in forming the eye and hand, and must be first practised, 
even by a dilettante, from real, sharply defined bodies, beginning with 
geometrical figures, proceeding through the simplest products of mechanical 
arts, to plants, animals, &ec. It is only after this sort of drawing, by which 
the student has enabled himself to become, so to speak, penetrated by a 
double perception of the objects drawn, that the question about a7t can 
arise. The designer must have become able to represent to his mind all 
objects of a drawing as they actually exist, ¢.e. to see the complex of all 
lines as if they were projected from the plane of the picture into space 
while, at the same time, he must be able to see in his mind’s eye every 
real object as if it were depicted on a plane surface. After this attainment — 
only can the draughtsman be said to be prepared to enter into the sanctuary 
of art; nay, not till then will he be able to produce a correct copy of u 
drawing. 
In order to obtain a precise knowledge of forms or shapes as they exis» 
in space, the theory of lines, angles, surfaces, volumes, as treated in geo 
metry, must be thoroughly studied. After this only can we attempt tc 
draw the simplest bodies of nature. This elementary knowledge is indis. 
pensably necessary for this reason: it stamps on our mind the sense of 
definiteness of form, whence the perception of all the characteristics of the 
various configurations of visible objects can be safely developed, since 
geometrical figures are their absolute constituent parts. The truth of this 
is evident as regards crystals, the simple products of mechanical arts, of 
architecture, &c. The objects of nature will be treated of, in this respect, 
in the sequel of this statement. Meanwhile it will be useful to examine 
the auxiliary lines in the figures given in explanation of the subject (pl. 19, 
jigs. T, 8, 18-16 ; pl. 20, figs. 18, 14, 20; pl. 21, figs. 12-16). 
Being obliged to restrict ourselves to mere hints, we propose to give a 
short outline of wniversal morphology, of anatomy as part of special 
morphology ; and, after having referred to the essential points of perspective, 
to treat of the delineation of the human body as a specimen of the applica- 
tion of morphology and perspective combined. 
1. Universan Morrnotocy. a. The Straight Line. Of all possible 
directions in space the most definite and absolutely steady are two: the 
vertical line ( pl. 19, fig. 45 DP) and the horizontal line (fig. 42 cd). They 
are called the chief directions. The numberless other directions are more 
or less oblique (fig. 45 mD, nD, tD, 7D, &c.), and can be determined only 
by their respective relations to the two chief directions. The latter indicate 
either by themselves the position of an object (pl. 19, jigs. 18, 14, 16), or 
they assist in determining it (as the auxiliary lines in jigs. 1, 2, 41-45). 
The vertical line is characteristic of standing and striving upwards, the 
horizontal of reclining and resting. 
b. The Angle. Of all possible angles the right angle is the only definite 
invariable one, and serves therefore as the standard in the determination of 
all other, or oblique angles. The latter being either acute or obtuse, 7. e. 
522 
