MUSIC AND THE DRAMA. 183 
The scenic art was carried to considerable perfection among the Greeks, 
especially the Athenians; and Phrynichus was the first who introduced 
several speakers together upon the stage. At first the actors were chosen 
from the highest ranks of free citizens, and the poet himse’f appeared and 
conducted the whole; so that the performances resembled those at our 
amateur theatres: But as early as the time of Demosthenes acting had 
come to form a distinct profession, as the fondness of the Athenians for 
dramatic representations could not suffer them to be dependent on the good 
pleasure of chance performers. The place of the poet as conductor was 
taken by the Protagonist (or impersonator of the chief character), who was 
at the same time the manager of the company. Such troupes were formed 
chiefly in Athens, and then traversed the whole of Greece, giving their 
representations in the chief cities, on which occasions two rival companies 
would sometimes come in each other’s way. The applause was as immo- 
derate as the blame: and while Aristodemus earned a talent ($8,000) in two 
days, bad players were hissed and hooted from the stage, pelted with stones, 
and even condemned to be fined. Still actors in general, though for the 
most part they led a very loose life, were held in great esteem, and were 
often invited to the courts of foreign princes; they were even intrusted 
with important affairs of state, and the orators received instruction from 
them. 
At first tragedy and comedy were mingled together in the Grecian 
drama; but afterwards, as civilization advanced, the two were separated, 
although in representations a tragedy was always succeeded by a farce. 
Among the Romans national pieces were performed by the sons of . 
Roman citizens; but the common pieces were left to mechanical players, 
histriones, who down to the time of Cicero belonged to the condition of 
slaves and were reckoned among the dregs of the people. Under Augustus 
persons of the higher ranks addicted themselves to acting; on which accout 
an edict was issued prohibiting knights and senators from going on the 
stage. Although players as a class stood in bad repute, still the best of them, 
as Roscius and Pylades, were treated with great consideration. The Etrus- 
cans also had plays; and among the Jews the first theatre was built under 
Herod. 
Among Christian nations the dramatic art originated in the practice in 
schools and monasteries of throwing stories from the Bible and legends of 
saints into the form of dialogues, which were then performed by the scholars. 
Bishops Apollinarius of Laodicea and Gregory of Nazianzen exerted them- 
selves greatly for the perfection of sacred tragedy, and the last named 
divine even wrote a tragedy himself entitled “The Sufferings of Christ.” 
The celebrated nun Hroswitha wrote several Latin pieces for the same pur- 
pose. In the middle ages there arose in France, the so-called Mysteries, 
Miracles, and Morals, and in Italy the Impromptu Comedy (Commedia 
dell?’ arte), from which a more artistic drama was soon developed. In 
England the drama as early as the 16th century assumed a definite fixed 
form, and Shakspeare has gained undying fame by his contributions to it. 
In Spain the chief dramatic writers were Calderon and Lope de Vega; and 
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