188 GEOGNOSY AND GEOLOGY. 
A curious formation is found at the foot of the Alps, not readily referable 
to any particular position ; it seems rather to belong between the upper and 
the lower groups. The molasse there lies beneath, with marl and calcareous 
sandstones predominating ; upon this is nagel-fluh of coarse grain, with 
subordinate beds of marls and sandstones. Then comes a shell sandstone, 
composed of true sandstone and nagel-fluh, embracing numerous fossil 
shells. 
b. The Lower Group, or the sub-Apennine Formation. Sandstone is of 
inconsiderable extent, but marl and clay masses, as also pebbles and 
boulders, rarely combined into solid conglomerates, are abundant. The 
limestone is principally fresh-water, and in the form of calcareous tufa. 
Shells are numerous. Of mammalia are found deer, oxen, bears, hyenas, 
and mastodons ; all, however, of extimct species. 
Among the primary masses of the sub-Apennine formation belong marls 
of mostly dark colors, passing into sandstone and slate clay ; they embrace 
celestine, iron pyrites, asphaltum, petroleum, &c. ; of sandstones, calcareous, 
marly, argillaceous, and quartzose sandstones, in the form of pebbles and 
boulders, sometimes united into conglomerate. Gypsum is subordinate, 
including the alabaster of Volterra. 
As a general thing the marls occupy the lower portion, the sand and 
pebble masses the upper regions. The marls and sandstones embrace vast 
numbers of shells, mostly in good preservation; also remains of mammalia, 
as elephants, rhinoceros, cetacea, &c. 
This second group of the Molasse is well called the sub-Apennine group, 
as it borders the Apennines and forms its outskirts. 
In this sub-Apennine formation are to be included the sand and pebble 
deposits on the south coast of Spain, containing single strata, entirely filled 
with oysters ‘and pectens. The same strata are met with in Southern 
France and in England, in which latter country they are known as Norfolk 
and Suffolk Crag. Here likewise belong sea-sand beds found in patches in 
various parts of Germany, and also embracing shells. These deposits 
contain various marls, sandstones, and limestones, in which are subordinated 
beds of iron-stone and drift. 
The thickness of these masses varies considerably ; they sometimes form 
hills and even entire mountains. They not rarely are pierced and 
overlaid by basalts, which, in many cases, has been the cause of their 
preservation from the denuding action of the water currents. The occurring 
fossils are entirely local. The quartz grit sometimes contains leaves of 
trees and opalized wood. Some of the animal forms are Corals, Nummulites, 
Clypeaster, Nucleolites, Spatangus, Terebratula, Ostrea, Pecten, Pectunculus, 
Venus, Solen (as S. hausmanni), Turritella, fishes, &c. 
The diluvium of Buckland belongs under this head. It consists of sand 
with subordinated clay and earth, sometimes consolidated into rocks of 
considerable firmness. The argillaceous portions are generally inferior, and 
upon them are spread out the sandy. There are also isolated sand hills, 
with various kinds of detritus, as also the drift accumulations of the north, 
which are of wide extent, reaching even into the river valley of the Elbe 
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