ON INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS. 109 



of Egypt, took place. Copper coins, supposed to have been issued 

 under the legitimate khalifs, are figured by Marcel, p. 26. 



On the death of Khalif Ali, " A. D. 661," Mu'awiyah, of the family 

 of Ommiah, became ruler of the Muslim Empire. He removed the seat 

 of government from Medina to Damascus. 



In "A. D. 672" (Plate, in Smith's Biog. Diet.), the Muslim fleet, 

 after capturing Smyrna and most of the Greek islands, began the 

 blockade of Constantinople: and on this occasion, Greek fire, just in- 

 vented by Callinicus, was successfully employed in the defence. 



In "A. D. 680," the accession of Yezid, the second Ommiad khalif, 

 took place. 



In "A. D. 683," the accession of Mu'awiyah II., the third Ommiad 

 khalif, took place. His reign was brief; and in the following year, he 

 was succeeded by Merwan. 



In " A. D. 685," the accession of Abd-el-Melek, the fifth Ommiad 

 khalif, took place. During his reign, a Nilometer was constructed at 

 Helwan, near Cairo (Wilkinson, Thebes and Egypt, p. 541). 



The "fawfal" of Maserjawia, Ibn Amran, Abu Hanifaj Mesue, Avi- 

 cenna, Serapion, and Ibn Baitar, is admitted to be the nut of the betel 

 palm (Areca catechu). — This palm is extensively cultivated through- 

 out Hindostan and the Malay countries : Wilkinson speaks of " areca" 

 nuts being found in ancient Egyptian tombs. 



The "tamul" or "tanbul" of Maserjawia, Abu Hanifa, Masudi, 

 Haly Abbas, Avicenna, and Ibn Baitar, is admitted to be the betel 

 pepper (Piper betel). — The use of betel has never been extended to 

 Egypt ; where, indeed, the Piper betel could hardly be cultivated with 

 success. 



The " turbud" of Maserjawia, Ibn Masawia, Hobaisch, Rhazes, Haly 

 Abbas, Mesue, Avicenna, and Serapion, is considered to be turpeth ; the 

 imported root of Convolvulus turpethum. — The plant, according to 

 Graham, is common in the environs of Bombay. 



The " kilkil" (already mentioned) of Maserjawia, Ibn Masawia, Abu 

 Hanifa, Rhazes, Avicenna, and Ibn Baitar, according to the received 

 opinion and Forskal's account of the usage in Yemen, is the Cassia 

 tora. — This plant has become a very general weed in Tropical coun- 

 tries ; and the seeds (which according to Ainslie are used medicinally 

 in India) have doubtless been sometimes imported into Egypt. 



The "cafur" of Maserjawia, Meseab, Mesarguil, Ibn Masawia, Ibn 

 Amran, Rhazes, and Serapion, is clearly camphor; imported from 



