June 21, 1888.1 



FOREST AND STREAM. 



441 



Small Yachts. By C. P. Kunhardt. Price $7. Steam Yachts and 

 Launches. Bu C. P. Kunhardt. Price $3. Yacht*, Boats and 

 Games. Bu C. StansHcld-Hichs. Price $3.50. Steam Machinery. By 

 Donaldson^ Price $1.50. 



FIXTURES. 



JlTNE. 



21. New York, N. Y. Annual. 28, Eastern Annual, Marble- 



21. Oswego, Ladies' Day. head. 



23. Great Head Moonlight Sail. 28. Cedar Point Pennant. 



23. Bay View Moonlight, Sail. 29. Quincy, 1st Cham. 



23. Savin Hill. 30. Cor. Marblehead, 1st Cham. 



23. Rhode Island, Ladies' Day. 80. Great Head Pennant. 



23. Seawanhaka Annua,!. 30. Monatiquot, Club, Fort Pt. 



23. Hull, Hull Pennant. 30. Dorchester Club. 



23. Toronto. 4th Class. 80-July 2. Quaker City, Cruise 



27. Pleon, Club. Up River. 



27. Cape Ann, Gloucester Cup. 30-July 4. Portland Cruise. 



27. Yorkville. 30. Hull, Club Cruise. 



28. Southern.Browster Cup,New 30. Toronto, 2d and 3d Classes. 



Orleans. 30, Quaker City Annual. 



JtTLY. 



2-12. Seawanhaka Cruise. 18. Bay View, Ladies' Day. 



2. Mirainichi, Club Cruise. 18. New Haven, Ladies' Day. 



4. Larchtnont Annual. 1!). Mirainichi, Cup. 



4. Buffalo Annual. 20. Savin Hill, Moonlight Sail. 



4. Beverly, Mou. Beach Cham. 20. Great Head Moonlight Sail. 



4. Quaker City, Cor. Regatta. 20. Bay View Moonlight Sail. 



7. Beverly, Swanipscott Cham. 20. Monatiquot Moonlight Sail. 



7. Cor. Marblehead, Club. 20. L. Y. R. A., Oswego. 



7 .South Boston Club. 21. American, Steam. 



7. New Rochelle Aunual. 31. Quaker City, Club Day. 



17. R. C. Y. C. Cruising Race, 21. South Boston Club. 



Oakville. 21. Cor. Marblehead, 2d Cham. 



9-16. Interlake, meet and races, 21. Beverly, Mon. Beach 3d Open 



Put-in Bav. 21. Cape Ann, Gloucester Cup. 



10. Southern Cruise, N. Orleans. 33. Rhode Island Cruise. 



11. Pleon, First Cham. 23. L. Y. R. A., Rochester. 

 13. Monatiquot. First Cham. 25. Pleon, Club. 



13. L. Y. R. A., Kingston. 26. Cedar Point Pennant. 



14. Great Head 1st Cham. 28. Cor. Marblehead, Ladies' 

 14. Beverly, Marblehead, Open Race. 



Sweep, 1st and 2d. 28. Hull, Hull Regatta. 



14. Hull, Hull 1st Cham. 28. Beverly, Mon. Beach Cham. 



14. Chelsea, Dorchester Bay. 28. Great Head Club. 



14. Savin Hill, Open. 28. Bay View Club. 



14. West Lynn, Cham. 28. West Lynn, Club. 



14, Gfcpe Cod, Club, Brewster. 28. Cape Cod Club, Cape Ann. 



14. Atlantic Cruise. L. I. Souad. 28. L. Y. R. A., Hamilton. 



14. Toronto. 5th Class. 30. L. Y. R. A., Toronto. 



16. L. Y. R. A., Belleville. 30. Quincy, 2d Cham. 



16. Quincy, Ladies' Day, Review 31. Monatiquot, Third Pen. 



16. Rhode Island, Cham. 31. Dorchester Club. 



17. Monatiquot. 3d Pen., inside. 31. L. Y. R. A., Toronto R.C.Y.O. 



NORTON SYSTEM OF NAVAL CONSTRUCTION. 



THE sad and fatal occurence of the Agnes capsize last week 

 calls attention anew to the vital importance of safety, above 

 all other considerations in naval design. How the two great 

 dangers of capsize and collision may be avoided is a question that 

 appeals to all who go down to the sea in ships, either for busi- 

 ness or pleasure, and in the interest of yachtsmen especially we 

 are called upon to investigate the latest claims for a non-capsiz- 

 able and non-si nkable vessel. We have spoken several times of 

 late of the Norton system of water ballast and air chambers, the 

 principles of which are illustrated in the accompanying sketch 

 of Captain Norton's working model, now on exhibition at the 

 office of Hoadley & Co., 77 William street, N. Y. While this model 

 does not, as we will show later on, represent the actual condition 

 of a vessel floating freely, it is correct in so far as the mechanical 

 features of Capt. Norton's invention are concerned. The model, 

 which is supposed to represent a part of a half-section of a life- 

 boat, is of the form shown in our drawing, the depth being 34in., 

 breadth 23in., and the length in a fore and aft direction lOin. As 

 will be seen, it represents a boat with a flat bottom, a straight 

 side and a low, round bilge. Insideafalse bottom is fitted, shown 

 by the heavy line, forming one compartment, A, B, C, in three 

 parts. A is the main ballast chamber, joining which is a narrow- 

 neck, B, opening into a larger chamber, C, containing air; the 

 normal water level being as shown. The space D is an air tank, 

 separated from the other chamber— in short nothing more nor 

 less than the ordinary watertight compartment used in canoes, 

 lifeboats and many other vessels. From A, a, vertical pipe 

 about l'-oin. diameter rises to the top of the tank, fitted at the 

 lower end with a check valve E which allows the air to escape from 

 A, but prevents its entrance again from above. At H, near the keel, 

 is an oval opening about lV£x5in. F is a. pressure gauge, connect- 

 ed bv a pipe with the air chamber C. H is a brass aim screwed 

 to the side of the tank in which the model rests, the latter being 

 pivoted on a bar resting in this bracket and with its other end 

 fastened to the side of the case. The model is made of sheet 

 metal and is quite heavy, the actual weight could not be ascer- 

 tained, but it must be at least 50Ibs. Over the ends of the coni- 

 p.-iri inent A. B, C, a plate of glass is fitted, so that the height of 

 the water mav be seen. The model is hung as described in a tank 

 nearly 4ft. square, filled with water up to the height shown, leav- 

 ing depth enough to permit the model to be pressed down until 

 the outer corner b, is submerged. The claims of the inventor 

 are best told in bis own words, as follows: 



"The air chambers are sufficient in size to keep the boat from 

 sinking when filled with men and with water. The ballast cham- 

 bers fill with water through the holes, H, as soon as the boat is let 

 into the water; the air in the middle or main part of each ballast 

 chamber is expelled through a small pipe, E. This air pipe at its 

 upper end is supplied with a valve, which allows the air to leave 

 the pipe, but does not allow the air to re-enter from the outside, 

 unless opened by hand. The air contained in the side arms or 

 wines of the ballast chambers cannot escape, it is detained there, 

 acts as an air cushion, and eases the motion of the boat. 



"The moment the boat is canted over from an upright position, 

 the water in the ballast chambers, which is distributed along the 

 sides of the boat, acts with a leverage proportionate to the angle 

 of cant to bring her back again. 



"When the boat is loaded with men or freight the submersion is 

 increased, and the air in the arms of the ballast chambers is com- 

 pressed proportionately, and is affected as a spring would be, and 

 adds greatly to the stability and gives the boat great elasticity of 

 movement. 



"The effect of the wind upon the boat's sails, when she is sud- 

 denly thrown down by it, will be immediately resisted by the 

 compression of the air in the arms of the ballast chambers on the 

 submerged side, and this upward pressure, aided by the weight 

 of water lifted in the chambers on the opposite side, will at once 

 enable the boat to resume her upright position. The advantages 

 of the boat are the following: 



'U, The automatically self-acting ballast. The ballast chambers 

 of the boat fill themselves as soon as the boat reaches the water, 

 and the valves open automatically. No attention nor any 

 mechanical action is needed. The advantage is evident. The 

 opening of a valve or any mechanical requirement may, in case 

 of danger, be easily forgotten or overlooked, whereas with the 

 holes in the bottom, which are always open, the boat is ballasted 

 as soon as she reaches the water. When the boat is lifted out, of 

 the water, the holes are sufficiently large to allow the water to 

 flow out in a few seconds. 



"2. The great stability of the boat. A number of experiments 

 ha\ r e proved that the stability of the boat is greatly increased by 

 filling the ballast chambers, aud with the ballast chambers filled 

 it is impossible to capsize, the boat. 



"3. Increased sailing capacity of the boat. The greater stability 

 enables the boat to carry a much larger area of sails than any 

 other boat of the same displacement, and to carry this increased 

 area of canvas in a stiff breeze mucli longer. 



"4. Her good qualities as a sea boat in heavy weather. The air 

 cushions in each side of the ballast chambers give a very easy 

 motion to the boat, as has been repeatedly proved by taking her 

 out to sea in rough weather. The boat, when heeling over, com- 

 presses the air, and she cants so gradually that no sudden motion 

 or jerks can take place. 



"5. Above all, the great safety of the lives of men, intrusted to 

 the boat, against the perils of the sea. ' 



"These boats can be built of any material; the most suitable for 

 all open boats is yellow metal. It does not loBe so much by 

 oxvdarion as steel or iron; it gives a very clean surface, can 

 better stand a blow without breaking, can easily be repaired on 

 board the ship, and always retains a certain value when old. In 

 comparison with wooden boats the metal has the advantage of 

 always remaining tight thpugh exposed to the heat of the funnel 

 of a steamer or to a tropical sun. To give the boat's metal the 



desired stiffness, without the aid of frames, the metal plates are 

 corrugated." 



The practical working of the model is (his: When it is placed 

 in the water the compartment fills through the hole H, the air 

 meanwhile escaping through the check valve, and pipe E until the 

 water rises to a certain height in the upper chamber C, the con- 

 fined air in which prevents it from filling the chamber. As the 

 valve in E is closed no air can enter the compartment save by the 

 aperture H. When the model is in this condition the free side is 

 depressed by pushing down with the hand at 6, and as considera- 

 ble force is required the stability of the model is supposed to be 

 fully proven. At the same time the hand on the gauge rises from 

 zero to about .75 or .801b. pressure, which it is claimed by Capt. 

 Norton is exerted over each square inch of area of new surface of 

 the water in contact with the air, now as indicated by the full 

 line a a. The next step is to open a three-way cock in the pipe F, 

 thus releasing the air from the chamber C, whereupon it fills with 

 water and the model sinks some distance further. The reason of 

 this, as given to the inquiring yachtsman or prospective investor, 

 is that the wonderful buoyancy of the air pressure shown by the 

 gauge is now removed. To the casual observer these so-called 

 tests are usually conclusive, and he is ready to swear to the evi- 

 dence of his own eyes: but let us look at the few plain aud simple 

 principles which underlie the case, leaving out the extraneous 

 features, which are only confusing. 



It is hardly necessary to define the two terms stability and 

 buoyancy, but in passing we yvould call attention to a practical 

 illustration of the difference between them, as it is necessary to 

 a clear understanding of the model. A flat board floating on the 

 water would possess great stability, but not necessarily great 

 buoyancy, and similarly a raft or catamaran is stable, but not 

 buoyant; it is difficult to capsize, but at the. same time has little 

 floating power. On the other hand a barrel is buoyant in the ex- 

 treme if filled only with air and tightly corked, but it has ab- 

 solutely no stability, it spins freely around in the water if 

 touched. If a man should step on the gunwale of an ordinary 

 open boat that side would go down, the opposite side would rise 

 out of water and the boat yvould at once capsize. Now, if he 

 were to lash one side fast to a wharf or pile he could stand with 

 safety on the other, as the boat would be no longer free to cap- 

 size, but would only be able to sink bodily beneath his weight, 

 which would be insufficient to sink her below the water. The 

 difference between these two conditions is precisely that between 

 Capt. Norton's model and an actual lifeboat floating freely. 

 When a boat heels one side rises, the other falls, but the displace- 

 ment remains precisely the same. How is it with the model? 

 When it is pressed down it goes bodily beneath the water, the 

 large wedge bed, being immersed, while no portion is raised 

 out of the water, owing to the fixed point of support at I. The 

 displacement of the part of the model below c d is 901bs., while 

 the displacement of the wedge b c d, is 491bs.; consequently in 

 forcing the model down the displacement instead of remaining 

 the same, is increased 45 per cent. All that is shown then by this 

 so-called test is the buoyancy of a hollow metal case, something 

 very well known before. 



Next, as to the pressure of the air in the chamber, C; there is 

 undoubtedly an upward pressure, but how powerful is it? The 

 gauge shows about .751b., which Capt. Norton claims is exerted 

 over the whole area, a a, of the water where it presses against the 

 air. This area is SxlOin.. or 50sq. in., consequently the pressure 

 yvould be 37.51bs. Now, leaving out the idea of a boat yvith valve, 

 gauges, etc., this submerged air tank open to the sea is reducible 

 to the simple elements of an airtight vessel with a pipe leading 

 from the bottom, as in the small figure, and filled with water 

 Now the pressure on the air is only that due to a column of water 

 as high as the distance from the upper surface of the air in (he 

 tube to the loyver surface of the air in the y r essel , a fact easily ver- 

 ified by a reference to any elementary work on physics. There can 

 be no greater pressure than this column of water, its size dependent 

 on the area of the tube; and applying this to the model yve find 

 that the plaee of the tube is taken by the smallest of the openings 

 leading to the air chamber. In the case of the model it is the oval 

 hole, H, about SxlOin., or 7%.sq. in.; but if the narrow neck be- 

 tween A and C were st ill smaller than this; its area would govern 

 the pressure on the air in C. The area of the surfate of the water, 

 a a, has absolutely nothing to do with the effective upward press- 

 ure of this submerged chamber, which pressure, as we have shoy\wi, 

 is very far under the amount estimated by Capt. Norton. In 

 one case mentioned the area of surface exposed to pressure in 

 a 26ft. lifeboat is given as l,800sq. In. on each side, the gauge show- 

 ing a pressure of .951b.; in other yvords, a lifting force of l,2351bs. 

 was exerted on the lee side of the boat by the air alone. The size 

 of the openings is not giy r en or the actual pressure could easily be 

 computed, and yvould be found as small in comparisen as in the 

 model, yvhere a pressure of nearly 381bs., according to Capt. Nor- 

 ton's estimate, is found to be only about 5>glbs. As it is an essen- 

 tial point of the system that the holes in the bottom and also the 

 passages, R, shall be small comnared with the bulk of water con- 

 tained in the compartment, the effective pressure in C must always 

 be proportionately small. 



We mentioned above a so-called proof of the value of this air 

 chamber, by letting the air out of it. What is really done is to 



let out the air and let in water, thus opening another part of the 

 vessel to the sea, in which case she of necessity sinks further. 

 The fraud in this case is so palpable that it is astonishing that it 

 deceives any one. The object is to test the value of the open air 

 chamber C under the pressure shown on the gauge. To do this it 

 is essential that the ballast and displacement shall be unchanged, 

 and that the model be first tested with the air chamber in com- 

 munication with the outside water, through B and H; and then 

 with the chamber cut off from the outside water, as for instance 



water, thus directly diminishing the buoyancy of the vessel. 



As a practical test yve are told that yvith C full of air a weight of 

 321bs. yvas required at B to sink that point to the water; while yvith 

 C full of water but 141bs. was needed. We have been unable to 

 get full and accurate figures as a basis for calculation, but the 

 drawing of the model was made from actual measurements, as far 

 as they could be taken, and is very nearly correct. The various ' 

 forces acting on the model yvhen it is depressed so as to bring the 

 point b to the water are easily calculated. The displacement of 

 the vessel would act upward through the center of buoyancy, as 

 shown, with a moment of 139X9=1251. The weight of the model, 

 about 501bs., yvould act downward through nearly the same point, 

 the moment being 50 v9=450, and the weight at b, 321bs., gives a 

 moment of 33x25=800. The upward moment then is 1251', while 

 the two doyymward moments equal 1250, so that the model would 

 be in equilibrium with a yveight of 321bs. on the gunwale at b, 

 which point is depressed to the water level. But according to 

 Capt. Norton's claim there is still another powerful force acting 

 to lift the model, tlie pressure of the air on the surface a a, 5xl0in., 

 and .751b. per inch, as by the gauge, or a total of 37.51bs. This 

 force acts through the center of the plane, its moment being 37.5 

 Xl3.5=50G. These figures are sufficiently accurate to shoyv that 

 the model itself gives no indication of the great air pressure 

 claimed, and they shoyv the method of making a careful and 

 practical test if those interested intthe scheme wish to do so. All 

 that is needed further is the yveight of the model yvith the size of 

 the opening H, and all the pressures can be readily computed as 

 above. 



As we have shown, stability is in no way proy r ed by the model, 

 but it is confused with huoyancy in a way that deceives many; 

 the. displacement of the model is altered and juggled with during 

 the "tests," and further, there is no indication in the yvorking of 

 the model of the large air pressure claimed. We know nothing of 

 Capt. Norton's moti ves, nor of the honesty of his belief in his 

 invention, but judging of the model itself from a purely 

 mechanical stand point yve have no hesitation in pronouncing it a 

 fraud and a snare, in that it does not truthfully represent what it 

 purports to. In conversation with the secretary of the Norton 

 Naval and Shipbuilding Co. yve were informed' that the fixing of 

 the model to a firm support was merely to represent the load, 

 such as the regular crew and the extra number of persons to be 

 taken from a ship, but yvhatever the intention, the fact is plain 

 that the fixing of the model destroys all analogy to a life- 

 boat at sea, and substitutes the question of buoyancy for that of 

 stability. 



Had the intention been to fairly test the invention by means of 

 a model it could very easily have been done by constructing two 

 small models of the middle body of a lifeboat, say of 2ft. beam and 

 lit, depth, the same proportions as the present half model. One 

 of these boats should have been fitted with the Norton chambers 

 aud valves; the other with a simple closed ballast tank to hold 

 exactly the same amount of water that is contained in the Nor- 

 ton model below the line a a e a. With the two models of the 

 same weight, and yvith the same amount of water ballast in each, 

 accurate tests could easily have been made to determine the 

 stability of each, and the benefit, to be derived from the air press- 

 ure. We were, told at Mr. Hoadley's office that the reason for 

 making but a half model was for convenience of transportation, 

 the box and model having been taken through Germany and 

 Denmark and exhibited at a number of places; but the present 

 tank is fully large enough for such an experiment yvith tyvo 

 models as yve have suggested, if the promoters of the scheme are 

 desirous of a test that shall be above suspiciou, as the present one 

 most decidedly is not. 



Considering the Norton boat, apart from the model and its 

 peculiarities, it should be considered that water ballast is in do 

 yvay a novelty, being in general use in different types of vessels 

 and having some advantages, while air chambers for safety from 

 sinking are found everywhere and are of the greatest possible 

 value where space permits their use. The water ballast tank and 

 closed air chamber were both well described by one of our corres- 

 pondents in yvriting on this subject as "good but not new"; while 

 the special features of the Norton system were at the same time 

 classed as "new but not good." At the first glance it is somewhat 

 puzzling to determine the exact status of the Norton boat, owing 

 to the openings in the bottom. It is evident that the boat gains 

 some stability from water ballast, but why if the ballast can run 

 freely in and out? The fact is that the water is held to a certain 

 extent in the ballast tanks by the pressure of the atmosphere, 

 and so long as it is held there it must be just as effective as the 



