454 



SCIENCE. 



of facts which are too numerous and complex to be sum- 

 marized very briefly. One group of facts bearing upon 

 the question of age is found in the comparative study of 

 the lateral drainage channels and their gradual extinc- 

 tion by the progressive development of the arid climate 

 of the region which took place in Pliocene time. Nearly 

 all the ancient tributaries of the Grand Canon appear to 

 have dried up at the beginning of its excavation or very 

 soon after, and the whole work shows the influences upon 

 arid climate. 



The Grand Canon district has also been subject to a 

 great amount of uplifting, amounting in the aggregate 

 according to locality, to 16,000 to 19,000 feet. The pres- 

 ent elevation of its surface above the sea is the difference 

 between the amount of uplift and the thickness of strata 

 removed, and is from 7,000 to 9,000 feet. This great 

 elevation is considerably surpassed in some other portions 

 of the West. Obviously, it has been an important factor 

 or essential condition in the process of canon cutting. 



The peculiar forms of the drainage channels of the 

 Plateau country, and of which the chasms of the Colo- 

 rado are extreme developments, are ascribed to the op- 

 eration of two groups of processes acting under abnor- 

 mal conditions. It is customary to say that the rivers 

 have cut their canons. This is but a partial truth, for 

 the rivers cut passages no wider than their water sur- 

 faces. The first group of processes is termed corrasion, 

 the result of which is the continuous sinking of the bed 

 of the stream by the grinding action of flowing water 

 charged with sand. Many factors enter into this result, 

 and their mutual relations are highly complex. But in a 

 general way it may be said that a river with a rapid de- 

 scent, carrying a notable quantity of sediment, but not 

 enough to overload it or overtax its transporting power, 

 will continuously corrade or grind down and deepen its 

 channel. If it is overloaded, a portion of its sediment 

 will be deposited and form a protective covering to the 

 bed-rock. Under special conditions it will actually build 

 up its bed. Most rivers, along their middle and lower 

 courses have their general conditions so adjusted that 

 there is little or no tendency either to build up or cor- 

 rade. To this equilibrium of adjustment all rivers are 

 tending, and most rivers have nearly or quite reached it. 

 The Colorado is exceptional in this respect, and its ten- 

 dency is to corrade. Its waters, though carrying great 

 quantities of sediment, are still under-loaded, and cculd 

 carry more if they could get it. This tendency to cor- 

 rade may be ascribed to the fact that the country through 

 which it flows has been gradually rising in altitude 

 through Tertiary and probably also Quaternary time, and 

 this elevation produces and maintains a rapid declivity 

 in the stream-bed, which in turn imparts a high velocity, 

 and consequently great transporting power to its waters. 



The widening of the cuts made by corrasion is the 

 work of the second group of processes, viz., weathering. 

 This is also a very complex action, and cannot be briefly 

 summarized. To this action is due the remarkable sculp- 

 ture of the canon and cliff walls and all those surprising 

 resemblances to architectural forms which are so abun- 

 dantly displayed in the Plateau country, and most especi- 

 ally in the Grand Canon. 



The concluding portion of Captain Dutton's lecture 

 was devoted to a description of the scenery in the Kai- 

 bab division of the canon, which is declared by all who 

 have seen it to be the most sublime and impressive spec- 

 tacle in the world. 



New Observatory. — A meteorological station is to be 

 erected at Pavia, under the direction of Professor Cantoni. 

 Investigations will be made at this station on the influence 

 of heat, light, electricity, etc., on vegetation in general, and 

 some cultivations in particular, and also the diurnal and 

 annual variations of terrestrial magnetism. 



MIXED SUGARS * 



By Professor H. W. Wiley. 



Mixed sugars are made of cane sugar and amylose 

 (starch sugar.) Within a few years the mixed sugar in- 

 dustry has advanced from a small beginning to a busi- 

 ness of considerable importance. It is difficult to get 

 accurate data of the amounts of this sugar made. Man- 

 ufacturers and dealers are extremely reticent on the whole 

 subject, and often refuse to talk about it at all. I have, 

 however, after considerable trouble, been able to get at 

 the rigures which will give at least an approximate esti- 

 mate. 



The principle centers of the grape sugar industry are 

 Brooklyn and New York, Buffalo and Peoria. From a 

 careful comparison of the data which I have been able 

 to collect, I place the daily product of mixed sugars at 

 the several factories at 1,500 barrels. This will be found 

 not far from the truth. It is rather under than over the 

 true number. It is thus seen that the mixing of sugars 

 is a fact which is altogether too large to be laughed at. 

 It must be remembered, too, that the manufacture is 

 rapidly increasing, and is only limited now by the quan- 

 tity of dry white amylose that can be made. 



Amylose costs 3^ to 4 cents a pound by wholesale. 

 Uuntil the price of corn became so high it was half a 

 cent less than this. It is, therefore, a very profitable 

 business to mix it with cane sugar and sell the whole 

 for the same price which the cane sugar would fetch 

 alone. I have here on the table specimens of these 

 mixed sugars. Here are eleven samples made by the 

 Manhattan Refinery, of New York, also six samples from 

 the Atlantic Refinery, of Buffalo, and six samples from 

 Henry Hobart, of New York. These sugars are sold re- 

 tail under various names. Of these I may mention "New 

 Process Sugar," " Niagara A B C," " Harlem B," "Ex- 

 celsior C." and various others. To the eye these sugars 

 look very much like straight cane sugars, and are gener- 

 ally pure and wholesome. They differ from the pure 

 cane sugars in being less soluble in water and in being 

 less sweet to the taste. 



It has been estimated that amylose is two and a half 

 times less sweet than sucrose ; but this depends largely 

 on the method of manufacture. Some samples of amy- 

 lose will be found quite sweet, while others impart even 

 a bitter taste. 



In the manufacture of mixed sugars it is highly im- 

 portant that the amylose be dry. If hydrated amylose 

 be used it is found almost impossible to pulverize it, and 

 when ground it is pasty and sticky. Machines have been 

 patented for obtaining finely granulated amylose from 

 the well dried specimens. It is quite impracticable, how- 

 ever, to obtain amylose entirely dry, and it is capable of 

 being worked very well when it still contains 8 to 10 per 

 cent of water. This water is put in when sold at the 

 same price as pure sucrose. In a commercial sense it is, 

 therefore, not a disadvantage. The amylose which is 

 used in mixing is generally made by high conversion 

 under pressure. It, therefore, contains a high percentage 

 of glucose, (dextrose) as compared with the maltose and 

 dextrine present. It is, therefore, less sweet to the taste 

 than the liquid amylose, where the percentage of maltose 

 is larger. 



Many schemes for the estimation of the different con- 

 stituents of a mixed sugar have been proposed. For a 

 discussion of the methods of analysis by reduction and 

 fermentation, I refer to my paper read before this section 

 last Saturday. I will content myself here with a brief 

 outline of the method which I have employed. The 

 water is estimated by heating two or three grammes in a 

 flat platinum dish to 150 C. for two hours. The per- 

 centPge of cane sugar I determine by Clerget's method. 

 First get the total rotation in the polariscope then invert 



* Read before the A. A. A. S., Cincinnati, 1881. 



