23 



forests which were established artificially are now reaching maturity. 

 Disadvantages of this method are becoming more evident and the 

 foresters are gradually substituting the natural method for the ar- 

 tificial. 



The natural regeneration of forests may take place in two ways: 

 (1) By coppice and (2) by seed. By coppice is meant the shoots 

 which spring up from the stump when the tree is cut (Figs. 23, 24, 

 69, 79) and the suckers which spring up from the roots. Coppicing 

 is a rather important method of reproduction in Pennsylvania since 

 some of our most valuable species, like Chestnut, Ash, and Oak re- 

 produce readily by this method. Natural seed regeneration leaves 

 most of the work to nature. Man attempts to hasten it somewhat by 

 regulated cutting in the stand and by wounding the soil so that the 

 seeds will find a favorable mineral soil upon which to germinate. 

 The trees which produce the seeds may be scattered singly, or occur 

 in groups, in strips, or in opened stands. These trees are known 

 as seed trees or mother trees. Some form of natural regeneration 

 must be used in protection forests, is advisable for game and park 

 forests, and applicable to the forests which are managed for the 

 production of wood. In some cases it is advisable to begin with 

 natural regeneration and then fill in artificially all places which 

 are not stocked with trees. 



THE DEVELOPMENT OP THE FOREST. 



The raising of some farm crops and, the raising of a wood crop have 

 many points in common. A farmer after planting his field to corn 

 in spring does not leave it to nature to develop and mature, but he 

 cultivates it and sometimes even cuts out undesirable sprouts called 

 suckers, knowing that careful tending will result in a larger yield. 

 Likewise the forester is not satisfied in establishing a forest but he 

 also aims to develop or tend it so that it will yield a large and val- 

 uable crop. 



The method of developing a forest depends upon the nature of the 

 forest and the desire of the owner. The forest may have been es- 

 tablished by nature and even partly developed by it or it may have 

 been established by man. The forests established and developed by 

 nature without the aid of man are usually in a rather unsanitary, 

 unattractive, unproductive, and unregulated condition. Under such 

 conditions it is necessary for man to transform these into forests 

 which are clean, attractive, productive, and which show evidence of 

 proper regulation on every hand. The forests which man establishes 

 usually start out with 2,000 to 20,000 or even 50,000 seedlings to 

 the acre, depending upon the method of establishment. If artificial 

 methods of regeneration are used about 2,500 seedlings per acre are 



