472 



FOREST AND STREAM. 



LDec. 2, 1898. 



in. front of the mnzzle of the gun and thus opened the 

 first circuit, the chronometer is caused to drop. Before 

 it has fallen below a certain point, the shot charge has 

 reached the target and forced this away from the con- 

 tacts, causing thereby the second rod or the registrar to 

 drop. The shorter rod falls on a disk and doing so re- 

 leases a spring, to which a knife is attached and which 

 now flies horizontally to the falling first rod, thereby 

 nicking ii at a certain point the zinc cover of the latter. 

 Now, the longer this chronometer falls— that is the longer 

 time the shot requires to reach the target— the higher up 

 on the long rod this nick made by the knife will be found; 

 and, on the other hand, the quicker the shot gets to the 

 second screen and causes the registrar to drop, the lower 

 the knife mark on the zinc will be. With the aid of a 

 graduated rule, which graduation conforms strictly to the 

 laws of gravity, the time occupied by tlie traveling shot 

 in reaching the target can easily and quite accurately be 

 determined. 



The velocities were taken at Chicago and Carney's Point 

 with the chronograph at a distance of 40yds. from the 

 muzzle of the gun. The figures quoted should be under- 

 stood thus: When a velocity of, say, S04f t. is mentioned, 

 it means that if the ]3ellets had continued to travel a full 

 second at the rate of speed they traveled up to 40yds. , they 

 would then have reached a distance of 804ft. 



Velocities taken up to a distance of 40yds. are termed 

 Initial Velocities, although, in a strict sense of the word, 

 this term should only apply to the velocities at the muzzle. 

 But it is almost impossible to take the velocities at this 

 point, and, therefore, they are, as far as hand-fire weapons 

 are concerned, generally taken at distances from 25 to 

 75yds. , with the shotgun at 40yd8. 



Velocity represents life force or penetrative power. 

 From the velocity figures a pretty reliable conclusion can 

 be drawn as to the killing power of a shot charge; and no 

 other means or methods employed for ascertaining the 



Eenetrative power constitute as trustworthy a guide as the 

 gures obtained from the chronograph. For this reason 

 the velocities will be taken herein as the basis for com- 

 paring and judging the penetration of the several pow- 

 ders. 



Gunners, as a rule, use for determining the power of 

 penetration of a certain powder or gun a cardboard or 

 paper pad. The results of such tests are unrehable and 

 generally misleading. Lead bullets and shot deform more 

 or less in striking any kind of an object, and this deformT 

 ation is governed by the velocity imparted to them. Shot 

 pellets driven with a comparatively low velocity will as a 

 rule deform less than those propelled by a higher velocity, 

 a.ndthe former will thus penetrate deeper than the latter, 

 although they lack in actual killing fox'ce. To illustrate 

 this still better it may be here stated that a bullet fired 

 from a large caliber rifle will at a distance of 300yds. pen- 

 etrate a sand jjile or block of wood only half as deep as at 

 a distance of 1,000yds., although at the latter distance the 

 real penetrative power is only about one-half of that at a 

 distance of 300yds. It is easily explained why such should 

 be the case, the buUet is simply deformed to a much greater 

 extent at the shorter distance than at the greater. The 

 same law applies to shot pellets; and for this reason the 

 results obtained by a penetration test of such a character 

 are of very little value. 



The gunner will do much better if, in testing a powder 

 or gun for penetration, he will employ a metal plate of 

 sufficient size as a target. This target should be painted 

 with white lead or any other suitable color. Pellets No. 

 1 fired against this target at a distance of 30yds. should 

 make marks about the size of a three cent nickel piece; 

 that is, flatten out that much, if they strike the target 

 with sufficient force. 



The figures obtained with the chronograph, especially 

 when, as it was done at Chicago, the^ are taken in con- 

 nection and simultaneously with the bursting strain, o£fer 

 many valuable hints for ballistic researches. If, for in- 

 stance, the chronograjjli registers a velocity below 700ft., 

 then the penetration is lacking and short of sufiiclent 

 killing force. If, on the other hand, the velocity of a 

 shot charge exceeds 900ft., an unsatisfactory pattern may 

 generally be looked for. For 12-bore guns the most ad- 

 vantageous velocities are those moving between 800 and 

 900ft. 



A propelling agent maintaining, under all conditions, a 

 velocity of 800ft. and above, affords ample guarantee for 

 a regular and sufficient killing power. If, on the other 

 hand, the velocity drops below 800ft. , it means a decrease 

 in penetration, and all velocities under 700ft. wQl not kill, 

 as a rule, at a distance of over 40yds. Nine hundred feet 

 velocity may be considered the maximum speed for all 

 shot charges fired from a 12-bore gun. Guns of a larger 

 caliber loaded with standard powder charges will give a 

 higher mean velocity than those of a smaller bore. The 

 mean velocity of an 8-bore gun, charged with a standard 

 load of black or nitro powder and shot No. 7, is about 

 890ft., that of a 10-bore gun 840ft., that of a 16-bore gun 

 800ft., and that of a 20-bore gun 770ft. 



Larger size shot will, with the same powder charge, 

 give a higher velocity than that of a smaller size. The 

 difference between shot No. 1 and shot No. 3 at a distance 

 of 40vds. is about 30ft.; between the former and shot No. 

 5, 60ft.; between No. land No. 7, 90ft., and between No. 1 

 and No. 10, 175ft. 



Increased shot charges generally diminish the velocity. 

 The difference between Vg and l^-oz. shot in a 12-bore gun 

 is about 30ft. in favor of the smaller charge, and in a 

 similar proportion the penetrative power of the smaller 

 charge exceeds that of the heavier. In other words, the 

 larger the shot charge the smaller, as a rule, the pene- 

 trative force. But this fact alone would hardly warrant 

 the advice to gunners to use as a maximum shot charge 

 l^oz. shot in a 12-bore gun. 



The object by the gunner in loading l^oz. of shot, is to 

 increase the chances of hitting. He desires to obtain a 

 closer or, at least, a larger pattern with the heavier charge. 

 But, even in this respect, the desired end is very rarely 

 reached, as a rule, and as the Chicago test has again 

 proven, IJoz. of shot do not improve the pattern much 

 compared with one obtained from l^oz, charge, and the 

 chances of hitting are by no means improved. Taking it 

 for granted that one particular gun will give a better 

 pattern with l^oz. than with l|oz. of shot: the same as 

 one gun will shoot one size shot better than another, and 

 again, another gun wiU shoot one kind of powder better 

 than others; all phenomena which aft'ord the institutions 

 for testing firearms, powder and ammunition, good oppor- 

 tunity for rendering the gunner valuable services by way 

 of establishing for each gun the most suitable kuid of 



powder and powder charge, the best adapted shot charge 

 and wadding material, etc. ; a problem which the average 

 gunner can hardly ever solve satisfactorily, yet, in 

 general, the results reached in this respect in Chicago 

 will fit the case pretty closely, and the experiments were 

 conducted in the premises, as in all other lines, with a 

 view only to the rule, not with regard to exceptions. 



Attention has been called to the fact, previously, that 

 the shot cloud in traveling through the air wiU spread 

 both longitudinallj^ and laterally, and that the pellets 

 constituting; a shot charge never reach a given point 

 simultaneously. It has a so been stated that, as a rule, 

 the shot charge fired from a chokebore barrel, retains a 

 more compact shape than that fired from an open barrel. 

 Similar conditions apply to smaller or larger shot charges. 

 The smaller shot charge generally will disperse less in 

 proportion than the larger, and the difference in the 

 arrival of the foremost and hindmost pellets is greater 

 with the larger shot charge than with the smaller. This 

 very difference, however, offsets all the presumable ad- 

 vantages of the larger charge in the way of an increased 

 chance of hitting against the smaller charge, for the 

 simple reason that even when the larger shot charge 

 makes a better pattern on a stationary target, this differ- 

 ence in the time of the arrival of the pellets is never taken 

 into account. 



The conditions are different when in both cases the 

 shots are fired against a moving object. In this event, 

 only those pellets come in consideration which arrive 

 somewhat like simultaneously and which constitute the 

 pattern or killing circle. Here the size and density of the 

 pattern is about the same from both charges, and conse- 

 quently the chances of hitting are alike, with the killing 

 force always in favor of the i^ellets from the smaller charge. 



Pellets striking game very forcibly will accomplish best 

 what is most desirable; they will produce a violent shock, 

 and it is a shock which makes a bird, when hit, coUapse 

 and drop almost perpendicularly to the ground. 



After this deviation from the object at issue, the main 

 theme shall again be resumed. 



The velocity of shot decreases as the distance of travel 

 increases, and this law applies in a more marked extent to 

 finer shot than pellets of larger size. 



Shot No. 1, for instance, shows at a distance of 10yds. a 

 mean velocity of 1,142ft.; at 60yds. , only of 820ft. Shot 

 No. 5 has, in the first place, 1,130ft.; in the second place, 

 720ft. velocities. Shot No. 7 shows, at 10yds. , a velocity 

 of 1,085ft. ; at 60yds., of 640ft. Shot No. 10 has, at 10yds., 

 a mean velocity of 1,080ft.; at 60yds., only of about 

 438ft. 



The length of the barrel, above 24in., does not exercise 

 a great influence on the velocity or penetration, especially 

 with nitro powders, which generally develop the bulk of 

 gases before the shot charge has moved more than about 

 Uft. in the barrel. 



For nitro powders the maximum length for ban-els is 

 reached with 26in. 



The Recoil. 



The gases developed by a powder charge in the gun 

 barrel have the tendency to expand uniformly in all 

 du-ections; they act, therefore, with the same force on 

 the bullet or shot charge and the breech or stock of the 

 gun. 



The backward acting force, push or kick transmitted to 

 the shooter's shoulder is termed recoil. The higher this 

 velocity creating the recoil the more perceptible the back- 

 ward movement of the gun will be to the shooter, and 

 heavier guns will give away to this backward movement 

 to a less extent than guns of lighter weight; hut the 

 shape of the stock as sxich has no bearing on the recoil 

 as long as the stock fits the gunner's shoulder. If the 

 force of the recoil is exercised more gradually the gunner 

 will hardly notice any difference between a light and a 

 heavier gun, but if this force is brought to bear in a more 

 sudden and pushing manner, the effect will be more sen- 

 sible to the shooter, and in some cases it may assume such 

 proportions that, as previously remarked, the shooter's 

 abilities are seriously affected, or it may even compel him 

 to discontinue the shooting for the time altogether. The 

 extent of recoil is ascertained by means of several for- 

 mulas, which serve their purpose better than the various 

 recoil gauges or devices for measuring the recoU. Larger 

 powder and shot charges naturally pi-oduce a heavier 

 recoil than smaller charges, and this difference again 

 will be more marked with lighter guns than with those of 

 a heavier weight. 



Nitro powders, as a rule, develop a lighter recoil than 

 black powder, especially fine-grain black powder, and from 

 this it would appear that the former generate their gases 

 more gradually than the latter. This, however, is not the 

 case. It is evident, therefore, that the recoil is influenced 

 by other factors, wliich still await discovery. 



* The recoil takes effect from the moment the gases com- 

 mence to develop, but it reaches its highest point only 

 after the shot charge has left the muzzle of the gun. 



Tlie time occupied by this process is only about one- 

 fourth to one-sixth of a second, and for this reason the 

 shooter does not feel the effect of the recoil in accordance 

 with its pi'Ogressive development. The recoil is felt by 

 him only after the shot charge has left the muzzle, because 

 the sense of the recoil is not transmitted from the shoulder 

 to the brain in such a shoii time as that elapsing from the 

 moment of ignition and the moment the shot cliarge 

 quits the gun. 



The Effects of the Climate and Humidity Upon 

 the Properties of Gunpowders. 



It has been stated previously that all propelling agents 

 are more or less susceptible to the influence of dry heat, 

 moisture in the air, and low temperature, and that on this 

 account many of them change their ballistic properties. 

 The effect of cold, to which all gunpowders are sub- 

 jected, may be presumed as being about the same in 

 this country as elsewhere. This effect is seldom felt to 

 any marked degree until the thermometer points to zero, 

 and increases in extent as the temperature sinks and as 

 the cool metal exercises a stronger chilling effect upon the 

 gases generated by the powder charge. 



All gunpowders develop in cold weather a lower burst- 

 ing- strain and velocity than in warm and dry weather. 



This influence can never be neutralized totally, but it 

 can be overcome to a certain extent by means of an in- 

 creased powder charge. Such charges as 3|drs. of B. C. , 

 Schultze, S. S., DuPont and Wood, and 31 or 32grs. of the 

 j Walsrode powders are then in place, and even the black 

 I powder, which is less affected by cold than the nitros, 

 should be loaded in heavier charges. 



Black and some nitro powders are very little affected 

 by dry heat or humidity, but some of the latter are rather 

 susceptible to these influences, and it is quite a difficult 

 task in such a case, to find the means of successfiflly 

 meeting and preventing these effects. The phenomena 

 coupled with the effect of dry heat have been described 

 before. The effect of moisture is especially^ noticeable 

 with cartridges having been stored for some time. Gen- 

 erally a slower velocity or diminished penetration, an 

 irregular combustion and a tendency for hang-fires are 

 the perceptible signs of the inliuence of moistm'e. 



Very few countries in the world can compare with 

 some parts of the United States of America in regard to a 

 high mean temperature and a Ifigh percentage of moisture 

 in the air. These influences are, in all probability, the 

 causes for the fact that several gunpowders show a differ- 

 ent behavior in this country from that in Em-ope, and 

 even act different in one section of this country than in 

 another. It has also been pointed out that some powders 

 developed at Chicago a higher mean bursting sti-ain than 

 they generaUy do in Europe, where the air is compara- 

 tively less dry than in the West, This difference will 

 assume larger jsroportions in such localities where the 

 moisture in the au' or the temperature reaches extreme 

 figures. 



The mean temperature for the total year in Germany is 

 about 50 " F, or 10° C, The highest variation is 69° F., equal 

 to about 20° C, 



France has a mean annual temperature of 58° F, , or 

 about 12° C, The mean annual temperature in St, Peters- 

 burg, Russia, is 42° F,, or about 5.50" C. In New York 

 and along the Atlantic Coast tlie mean annual tempera- 

 ture is 52° F, or about 12° C, the lughest variation 108° F,, 

 equal to 42° C. Turlock, in California, reaches a mean 

 annual temperature of 89° F., or about 31° C, while in 

 Texas Hill, Arizona, the mean annual temperature 

 reaches thestartUng figure of 108° F., equal to about 43° 0, 

 The highest variation at this point is 122° F,, or about 

 50° C, 



In California and several of the Southern States the 

 temperature seldom drops below the freezing point, but 

 in a number of the Northwestern States frequently much 

 lower than in Central Europe. 



In tlie Central European States the moisture contained 

 in the air averages dm-ing winter 83.7;?; in the spring 

 72. 3;^; in summer 65,7;?, and in the autmnn 79;^, therefore 

 for the total year 75. 2;^. At Pike's Peak, at a point over 

 14,000ft. above the level of the sea, the humidity for the 

 total year reaches 81;^, and at Mount Washington, 6,000ft. 

 above the level of the sea, for the total year 90;^. The 

 Pacific and Atlantic States show about the same degree of 

 moisture in the air for the year, namely, 71;;^ in tlie former 

 and 77;r in the latter. 



In Europe the air is saturated with moisture the most in 

 the winter. In this country the highest points of humidity 

 are reached in summer, and frequently, on a hot, bright 

 day, the moisture of the air mpasures D-l ;, a phenomenon 

 which accounts for the fact that the same degree of heat 

 appears often in this country comparatively more oppres- 

 sing than in Europe. 



Some of the States west of the Mississippi and in the 

 South show a remarkably dry air. The mean humidity 

 in Texas for the year is 68;?, in Colorado 55;^, in New 

 Mexico 53;?, in Montana 50;^, and in Nevada 44;?, 



The variation in the percentage of moisture is greater 

 in this country for the single day as well as for the total 

 year than in central Europe, and the highest extremes are 

 found again in America. 



From the figures quoted it will appear evident that such 

 powders, which are susceptible to dry heat, must show a 

 different behavior in those sections of the country where 

 a portion of their moisture is absorbed by the air, than in 

 parts where the percentage of moisture in the air is more 

 uniform and high, 



A powder doing quite well in New York and California 

 may, owing to the effect of the dry air, prove compara- 

 tively useless in Colorado, New Mexico and Texas. 



The combustion of the dryer powder will be much more 

 sudden and the gases wiU be developed a great deal 

 quicker than under normal conditions, resulting, as a rule, 

 in an extraordinary heavy recoil, a bad pattern, and per- 

 haps, in some cases, in a balling of the shot. 



For all such sections of the country those powders are 

 the best suited which are non-susceptible to dry heat or a 

 dry au-. and the result of the Chicago powder test fur- 

 nishes, in this respect, the necessary guidance. But, if 

 the gunner prefers for some reason to continue the use of 

 a powder to which he is accustomed, although it does not 

 meet the requirements just referred to, then he ought, by 

 all means, never to load more than .3drs. for a 12-bore 

 gun and the equivalent for guns of other calibers. He 

 should likewise use an elastic felt wad and avoid a too 

 strong crimp of thesheU. 



Gunners residing or using grmpowder in such parts of 

 the counti-y where the percentage of moisture in the air 

 is high, should again consider the question if and to what 

 extent a propelling agent is hygroscopic. A powder 

 which absorbs moisture readily will hardly answer in this 

 case, inasmuch as both the ignition and combustion of 

 the powder will not take place under normal condition. 

 The penetration will be lacking in force and hang-fir?a 

 will occasionally occur. 



In duck shooting, in rainy or foggy weather, and in 

 snow, those powders will give the best results wluch are 

 the least affected by humidity in the air. 



At Chicago all powders were tested in regard to their 

 susceptibility to moisture. 



The Behavior of the Several Powders Toward 

 Highly Increased Charges. 



It has been obsery^, previously, that all nitro powders 

 react to increased CTiarges more violently than black 

 powder. As long as the ordinary 2*in. shells are used, 

 there is hardly any danger on account of an overcharge 

 of powder, whether this increase has been brought about 

 intentionally or accidentally. When the powder charge is 

 much in excess of the standard load, the shell will either 

 not permit the regular size wad, or the regular shot charge 

 or the crimp or turn over will be shorter than usual. All 

 these last named factors will counterbalance to a great 

 extent the effect of an increased powder charge. But 

 when longer or brass shells are used, or the Walsrode 

 powder is loaded into shells not provided with an extra 

 high base wad, then the reaction of ttie increase will 

 exercise its full force, and in such a case more or less 

 danger is created. 



Jt will be shown that tb© various powders, jas long as the 



