182 
[Feb. £&, 1896. 
amount of the negative evidence, which has been in no way weakened 
by Lord Dunraven's representative on cross-examination, affords 
proof that may well be termed convincing and unimpeachable. 
Had it been a matter of shifting or starting ballast in an open boat 
with a crew of four or five and only a few hundredweights of ballast 
involved, it would have been impossible after the lapse of even less 
time to have proved anything; but in the case of Defender, where a 
weight of a dozen tons of lead must have been shipped and unshipped 
three times in two days, involving the knowledge of a number of men 
but of possibly seventy-five ill all associated with her drew or on the 
tender or as outside mechanics, and with reporters by the score about 
her in the keen quest for news, it would be Utile less than a miracle if 
the fraud had been perpetrated with such complete secrecy as to 
have been undiscovered in the course of the investigation. 
YACHT DESIGNING.— V I. 
BY W. P. STEPHENS. 
IContinued from page UU.] 
Having now an idea of the nature of the fluid ill which 
vessels float, we are in a position to attempt some simple 
experiments from which much may be learned. The fol- 
lowing apparatus ahd demonstration was arranged by 
the author as a part of a lecture on "The Yacht Designer 
and his Work," delivered by him before the Seawanhaka 
Corinthian Y. C. in 1892. We will take first a glass ves- 
sel, with an opening near the top as an overflow, and a 
pair of common scales. The vessel being filled with 
On Feb. 17 the letters from Lord Dunraven to Messrs. Phelps and 
Rives, of the special committee, arrived on the Etruria, but their con- 
tents have been carefully guarded until the special meeting called for 
Feb. 27. A letter has sirce been received, addressed to Com. Brown. 
A second Chicago yacht club is now in the field with a new yacht, 
to take part, if possible, in the proposed ' -international* ' race between 
Chicago and Toronto. The dimensions of this craft are considerably 
less than those of the first yacht, and very much better suited to the 
purpose. Whatever temporary good may result from such a race as 
is proposed, we fail to see that the introduction on the lakes of what 
may be termed the Niagara type, of extreme bulb-fin, can be other 
than harmful to the best interests of yachting. The aeceptarce by 
the Royal Canadian Y. C. of the Chicago challenge will necessitate the 
formation of a syndicate and the expenditure of some $10,000 in the 
construction and racing of a yacht that will be absolutely useless on 
Lake Ontario and on the other lakes as well save for this special 
match. A long experience has shown that an extreme draft of 9ft. is 
all that can be carried with convenience and safety on Lake Ontario 
in the regular yachting service of cruising, racing and making the 
circuit of all the Lake ports, as is done by the yachts of Oswego, 
Toronto, Hamilton and Rochester. The largest keel boat possible on 
this length is such a craft as the Fife boats Zelma and Y-ama, and the 
home- built boat Aggie, of about 37ft. l.w.l.; the 46ft. Vreda, drawing 
about the same as the smaller yacht S; Such a yacht as these gives a 
main cabin, after stateroom and good forecastle and toilet space, and 
has proved the most convenient size of all-round racing and cruising 
craft for the special work on Lake O atario. The larger yachts are 
either centerboard craft or keel boats o£ limited draft for their 
length a*nd so not in the racing. In build and equipment these yachts 
are preeminently usable, not mere racing machines, but fitted for the 
comfort of their owners on long trips. So far as we are aware the 
practical limit of draft, as gauged by the majority of harbors— and 
they are .few enough— is no greater on the Western lakes than on 
Ontario, and there are strong reasons for observing the natural limit 
of about 9ft. in all yachts, keei;or centerboard. 
A draft of 10ft. or over would be a very serious obstacle to the use 
of a yacht on Lake Ontario, save for special racing purposes, and the 
conditions of local yachting are entirely against the introduction of 
this type of craft. Apart from the draft, there is no popular place 
for the bulb-fin machine, and its introduction is in every way unde- 
sirable. It is quite possible that a challenge from a yacht of 43ft. 
racing length, the class to which Yama, Aggie and Zelma belong, 
would result in the construction of two or three more of these yachts 
by Canadian yachtsmen and the strengthening of this desirable class 
throughout the lakes; but as the challenge now stand3 the only thing 
possible is to organize a syndicate and build a single racing machine 
to defeat Chicago. If she should be successful and her future owner 
should continue to race ber on Lake Ontario, she would probably 
destroy the existing boats and put an end to all racing; as there is no 
more prospect of such a class becoming permanently popular on Lake 
Ontario than of New York and Boston yachtsmen rushing to build in 
Defender's class. In international racing between America and Great 
Britain, the bulb-fin machine of extreme size has been a necessity 
under existing conditions. In international racing between Chicago 
and Toronto there is no necessity whatever for the adoption of a 
similar type; and many excellent reasons against it. 
It is one thing to own a yacht, especially a large and costly steam 
yacht, and another thing to be able to name it; and the new additions 
to the fle»t do not shine conspicuously in the way of originality or dis- 
tinctiveness. The magnificent Watson yacht building for Mr. Higgins 
will be disguise! under the trite and hackneyed name of Varuna; the 
other Watson yacht, for Mr. Drexel, will be named Margarita II., and 
the yacht building by Mr. Nixon for P. A. B- Widener, and shortly to 
be launched, will be christened Josephine. It is not an easy task to 
choose a fitting name for such craft as these, but it should at least be 
possible to steer clear of the trite and commonplace names that grace 
the yacht lists year in and year out, and fail entirely to specialize and 
identify these fine yachts in a manner appropriate to their size and 
appearance. - 
New York Y. C. Library. 
Within a few years past the New York Y. C. has been fortunate in 
securing an active and energetic library committee, at the head of 
which is Mr. Fordham Morris; the result being that the club has 
already a very fine library, as shown in the following report, to which 
additions and improvements are constantly being made: 
To the New York Yacht Club: The library committee presents the 
following report of its operations during the season of 1895-6: 
There are now in the library over 8,600 bound books, charts, maps 
and photographs, not countina duplicates or framed pictures. 
The chart table and sailing directions in the library afford informa- 
tion sufficient for the planning of cruises to any part of the world. 
Special attention has been given to the close relations which exist 
between American and Mediterranean yacht clubs, and the charts 
requisite for cruising in that inland sea .have been added to the collec- 
tion. 
The committee has given much attention to obtaining data for the 
navigation of our inland waters, as the club signal now flies on the 
Great Lakes, the Ohio and many others of our great inland waterways. 
By the deepening of the canals in this State, new routes to the Great 
Lakes will be open to yacht cruisers; and if the Hennepin and New 
York enterprises are finished to their contemplated magnitude, a yacht 
of considerable draft will soon be able to cruise wholly within Ameri- 
can waters from New York to Duluth or the deltas of the Mississippi. 
The committee has embraced some suggestions relative to this ques- 
tion in a separate communication. 
The appropriation for the fiscal year was $1,385. It has all been ex- 
pended in new books, binding up old books, bookcases, library appli- 
ances, postage, printing and correspondence. All bills are paid up to 
date and all outstanding contracts which mature before the next 
appropriation are provided for, so that the new committee will not 
have to meet charges from last year. The details of the account 
appears in the treasurer's report. 
Much liberality has been shown by members and others in donating, 
books and other works to the library. When received, the donors 
have been promptly thanked, and notice of the gift duly posted on the 
bulletin board. The committee has caused a list of all donors and the 
works contributed to be printed and mailed to each member of the 
club and the donor. The committee hopes that a perusal of this 
record of generosity will induce others to follow the example. 
The committee are grateful to the members for the interest mani- 
fested in their labors. It should be the highest incentive to our suc- 
cessors; for our work, if carried out on its present lines, will, in a very 
few years, result in the making of the best yachting library in America. 
All of which is respectfully submitted, Fordham Morris, 
Feb. 13, 1896. William Gardner, 
Arthur H. Clark. 
while the flat block capsizes, the cylinder with its metq 
keel continues to regain its original position, no matte, 
how far it may be heeled; in fact we may turn it untj 
the mast points directly downward, but it becomes u;_ 
right as soon as released. 
We shall not attempt here to discuss the question of tJ e 
accuracy and propriety of the expression "stability ,f 
form," those who are interested will find a very full d^. 
cussion in Kemp's '-Yacht Architecture." It is evide^ 
TAKK, MODEL AND SCALES. 
water, we will place it in a small cylinder of pine (1), 
which will naturally float, about half immersed, or with 
its axis just above the water. If we force it down to the 
bottom of the vessel it rises at once on being released, im- 
pelled by a force which is called buoyancy This force 
acts always in a vertical direction, and, as we shall see 
later, through one particular point of a floating body, or 
for that matter, of every immersed body, even 
though the body may sink through the force of gravity 
being greater than that of buoyancy. Now we will re- 
move the block and All the vessel with water up to the 
level of the overflow pipe, and place the pan of the scales 
under this pipe. On replacing the cylinder very carefully 
a certain amount of water is displaced and runs over into 
the scale pan. Now we will take the cylinder from the 
water and place it on the opposite end of the scales, and 
it will exactly balance the water in the pan, previously 
displaced from the vessel by it. 
We say "exactly," but as a matter of fact, in perform- 
ing this experiment a number of times by way of rehearsal, 
it proved to be almost impossible to obtain exact results, 
from a cause noted in the previous chapter, the 
viscosity of the water, or its resistance, when in very 
small quantity, to a change of form. The displacement 
of the cylinder being only about a teacupful, the water 
would rise somewhat above the level of the outlet before 
its surface would break and it would begin to flow; and 
drops would cling to the leaden spout as the flow dimin- 
ished, so that the overflow into the pan would not quite 
balance the cylinder. Unless performed on a larger scale, 
involving an overflow of perhaps several gallons of water, 
the experiment in itself may not prove a convincing suc- 
cess; but the fact that the weight of water displaced by a 
floating body is exactly equal to the weight of the body is 
so firmly established that no one would care to question 
it on the basis of an experiment on a very small scale. In 
the case of a yacht, the displaced water is equal in weight 
to that of the hull, spars, lead keel, sails, gear, crew and 
every minor detail. 
It is this weight of displaced water which measures the 
buoyancy or floating power of a body. This seems per- 
fectly natural in the case of a wooden vessel, but at first 
sight it is rather paradoxical in the case of an iron or steel 
one, though it is equally true. We will take a piece of 
sheet lead (5), which, on immersion, of course, sinks 
quickly to the bottom. We will now take it and turn up 
the edges to form a shallow box (6), and though it is still 
lead, and of the same weipht as at first, it now has buoy- 
ancy, and floats. When first immersed, the volume of 
water displaced, though equal to the bulk of the lead, was 
but one- eleventh of its weight. In the form of a box, 
however, while the wtight is the same, the bulk of water 
displaced is very much greater; and the weight of this 
water is more than the weight of the lead; consequently 
the buoyancy is greater than the gravity. 
We have now learned two very important facts about 
the block of wood, it will float under all conditions, and 
we have a measure of floating power (buoyancy) in its 
own weight. Now we will ship in its upper side as it lies 
afloat a small stick, representing a mast, and the result is 
— a capsize. We will now take another block of pine (3), 
of the same length, bulk and weight, but flat, with a rec- 
tangular instead of a circular cross section. In buoyancy 
and displacement it is precisely the same as the cylinder, 
but on stepping a mast in it (4) a very different condition 
of affairs presents itself. The block not only does not 
capsize of its own accord, but when heeled down and re- 
leased it resumes its original upright position. It is cer- 
tainly a step nearer to a yacht than the round block, for 
it will carry sail and afford a foothold for a crew, but it is 
not perfect; we heel it a little further than at first and 
again we have — a capsize. 
These two capsizes teach a good deal. We have dis- 
covered that the second block possesses a new attribute, 
stability, by virtue of which it not only rests in one par- 
ticular position when undisturbed, but returns to the same 
position after being removed from it. We have found, 
further, that there is a limit to this same stability, and 
that if the block be heeled too far it disappears. 
Now we will take our old friend, the cylinder, and affix 
to the side opposite the mast a small piece of brass (7), a 
fashionable fin-keel (2). What is the result? We have 
given to thi3 model the same attribute that the flat one 
possesses, stability; when we heel it and release it, it re- 
turns to its original position. Now let us heel both to- 
gether and watch the result; up to an angle of perhaps 55 
degrees from the vertical, both return at once to the up- 
right position when released, but when past that angle, 
1 
- 
1 2 
1 
§ 
6 
MODELS. 
however, that the stability of the cylinder difft 3 f rom 
that of the flat block, in that the former is due 3 j e j y to 
the addition of ballast,while the latter is derived rom t he 
form and proportions of the floating body. In l( i(jition 
to a recognition of this difference, we have les ne( j the 
meaning of a term very common in naval arc)| ;ecture 
the "range of stability." In the case of the block' • 
the "range," or the angle through which it may e heeled' i 
without losing its stability, is quite limited j n the 
cylinder, however, ic is infinite — we can find Dp 08 ition 
in which the block will rest save the original uightone, 
If we could carry the practical experimen a little 
further by attaching a cord and weights to the t> 0 f eac h 
mast, so as to measure the power required t('h ee l the 
vessel at each degree of inclination, we wouldg n( j that; 
in the cylinder a very light pull would serve^ m0V e it, 
from the upright position, but the resistancey.^^ j n . j 
crease until considerable force was necessar, w h en ^ ne 
mast was on the surface of the water; the eBse \ n0Wi 
having a strong tendency to right herself, ln^ ca8e Q £ 
the flat block a comparatively heavy pull wou be neces- 
sary at first, but it would soon decrease, and af r an an gi e | 
of 55 degrees was reached the model would fallCg r c f itself. 
The two extremes represented by these modef nc i U( j e a jj 
types of yachts,from theold "flatiron" or "skiing ^h", 
to the modern bulb-fin and the old "plank-o^g^" cut . 
ter. The former possessed what is called "\tial stabil- 
ity," being very stiff at small angles of heel having a 
nearly level deck at all times — except whe as no t ^ a , l 
frequently happened, they capsized; the cons n ^ lability 
to this mishap, with possibly fatal results, Ijjjg one 0 f 
the most serious of the defects of this type. }he narrow 
cutter, like the cylinder, would under th6p resaure Q f 
sail never remain near the upright positioi no ma tter 
how heavily she might be ballasted, the 3a8 t breeze 
would heel her considerably and place tb^ ec ^ a t an 
angle that was inconvenient to work on, ai m a s trong 
wind the deck might be so nearly vertical t^ the crew 
kept their hold with difficulty; but at the 8f ie time s he 
would be incapable of capsizing. 
In the next chapter we shall go further in, the subject 
of buoyancy and stability ; but before lea\g the vessel 
of water and its block models we would )' m ^ ou t that 
while we have investigated two of the in or t an t attri- 
butes of a yacht, buoyancy and stability, ere i s 6 tiu a 
third. We have thus far succeeded in obl n j n g mo( jel£ 
which will float and at the same time ni^in an up- 
right position under certain conditions, t neither of 
them would steam or sail very far in a dayth e r eal ves- 
sel, no matter for what purpose she mab e intended, 
must possess a third attribute, form, by vy jVLe G f w hicb 
she makes her way as easily and speed, as p 088 ibk 
through the water. 
FORM. 
