EUEOPEAN TIMBEE 
61 
under a fine of 100s, A good deal of aspen comes from 
Russia and is used for "venesta " panelling, and a large 
quantity is made into matches in Sweden. 
Weight of poplar about 26 to 33 lbs. per cubic foot. 
English Elm {Ulmus campcstris), Fig. 14, a tree of 70 or 80 
ft. in height and sometimes 5 ft. in diameter, produces a 
wood of a reddish brown tint, the sap being brownish white, 
highly valued for its strengtli — especially across the grain 
— toughness, closeness of texture, and great resistance to 
crushing ; stands driving bolts and nails very well, excellent 
in water or damp situations, and was formerly much used 
for water-pipes in English towns, many of which, taken up 
in recent years, bored to 3 or 4 inches diameter, after 
being in the ground for a great number of years, were in 
good condition. It was at one time a good deal used for 
piling in difficult ground — the piles of old London Bridge 
were of elm, and found in good condition after being in the 
ground for 800 years — also for keels and other timbers of 
ships, naves and spokes of wheels, and butchers' blocks ; it 
is not now so much used, owing to the American elm being 
more readily obtained of the required sizes, but the quality 
of the latter is inferior. English elm is, however, still 
supplied to South Wales from Gloucestershire and Somerset 
for box-making in the tinplate trade whenever there is 
a scarcity of birch, and used in large widths for wagon and 
cart planking. The wood is much twisted in grain, which 
makes it difficult to work, and it is very difficult to split, 
though if left lying in the open is very liable to split. 
Medullary rays scarcely noticeable, the pores run in peculiar 
zig-zag and wavy lines. Used a good deal for coffins ; so is 
the Dutch elm, which is the same tree. The French elm is 
also chiefly the wood of the U. campcstris, and grows to a 
considerable size, but is not generally so hard as English 
