144 Japan and the Japa7iese, 
upon Chinese codes, and were mostly remarkable for their 
cruelty. Before the Revolution of 1868, death was the 
usual punishment for crimes, and death, accompanied by 
torture, for aggravated crimes. In the old times, confessions 
were forced from the accused by cruel tortures, and then 
death was inflicted by terrible means ; but recently the code 
has been so altered, that death is abolished, except for 
serious offences, and the practice of obtaining confessions 
by torture, abolished. Convict establishments have been 
opened, much like our own, in which the prisoners are kept 
under firm discipline, and taught various trades, such as 
porcelain and lacquer work, as well as rougher manual 
pursuits, by means of which they may, when released from 
prison, earn an honest livelihood. Miss Bird tells us that 
there are twenty degrees of punishment, ten of which in- 
volves from ten, to one hundred days' imprisonment, and 
the other ten, penal servitude for one year, up to captivity 
for life. In some cases, imprisonment, where it is unaccom- 
panied by hard labour, may be undergone in the offender's 
own house, his relations being responsible for his safe 
custody." A slight assault is punishable with twenty days' 
penal servitude, and wilful murder receives the doom of 
death. Offences against husbands and parents are severely 
punished; and should a child neglect to mourn for his 
parents during the period prescribed by the laws, he is liable 
to penal servitude for one year. During the days of old 
Japan, it was customary to perform Hari-kari^ or *'the 
happy despatch,'^ in case of misfortune or dishonour, which 
meant committing suicide. The present law, however, 
punishes an attempt at suicide, with ten years' penal servi 
tude, so that, in all probability, the custom of performing 
" the happy despatch " will wholly die out. 
But in her new system of education, Japan has taken the 
