NO. 1 CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN LATIN AMERICA 85 
Integration Period. — By the time of the Spanish contact, coastal 
Ecuador was divided into three large archeological cultural areas : The 
Atacames Culture was spread over coastal Esmeraldas and northern 
Manabi ; the Manteno from Bahia de Caraquez to the Island of Puna 
(Estrada, 1957a) ; and the Milagro along the Andean foothills from 
the vicinity of Quevedo to the Peruvian border (Estrada, 1957b). 
Large urban centers are characteristic ; for example, the Manteno oc- 
cupation is more extensive than the present town of Manta, which had 
a 1960 population of 27,000. The Manteno and Milagro people were 
earth-movers on a grand scale. The Mantefio constructed agricultural 
terraces in the steep-sided ravines of Cerro de Hojas and neighbor- 
ing hills, while the Milagro people built thousands of large artificial 
earth mounds as building substructures and for burial. Whether these 
cultural areas correspond to political units cannot be demonstrated as 
yet, but such a conclusion would seem in keeping with the level of 
sociopolitical development indicated by the archeological remains. 
Much of our knowledge of these late cultures is derived from the 
cemeteries, where the dead were buried in urns, together with small 
pottery vessels and other possessions illustrative of their status and 
occupation. The variety of these objects in the Milagro Culture is 
suggestive of advanced occupational specialization and of marked 
differences in social status. Aside from pottery, the most frequent 
ofifertory objects are copper ornaments of chains, bells, earrings, and 
nose rings, and copper tools such as tweezers, axes, pins, knives — 
attesting to a well-developed metallurgy. Less common, and asso- 
ciated with individuals of higher status, are silver bowls and orna- 
ments, and jewelry of gold set with disks of blue stone. The simple 
and elegant nose ornaments and elaborate earrings are among the 
most beautiful creations of New World metalworkers. Gold was also 
used to inlay carefully drilled holes on the front face of the upper in- 
cisors. 
Of perishable creations we know much less, but one urn dating 
from about the time of Spanish contact produced enough fragments 
of intricately carved wooden staffs, basketry, and textiles to demon- 
strate that in these arts the coastal Ecuadorians were not inferior in 
skill to their neighbors to the south. The textiles represent a variety 
of weaves, and are decorated by warp and weft float and ikat tech- 
niques, the latter being especially finely executed. Beaded fabrics, 
shirts covered with silver and gold bangles, headdresses of feather 
plumes, and collars of embossed gold and silver suggest that the chief 
or priest must have presented a magnificent sight. 
