AMERICAN 
JOURNAL OF BOTANY 
Vol. II March, 1915 No. 3 
MORPHOLOGY AS A FACTOR IN DETERMINING 
RELATIONSHIPS! 
J. M. Greenman 
The remarkable advance in our knowledge of relationship of 
organisms during the past quarter of a century is due primarily to 
extended studies in morphology in one phase or another. In this field 
data have been gathered from various sources, and there is at present 
a vast array of recorded observations many of which have been 
interpreted in terms of relationship and phylogeny. In fact among 
morphologists and taxonomists relationship and phylogeny have been 
leading questions of the day. So important is morphology in these 
matters that it may seem almost axiomatic to speak of morphology as 
a factor in determining relationships. Nevertheless, the methods of 
attack have been from such different standpoints and the significance 
of the results is such that I trust a general statement at this time may 
not be entirely out of place. 
Naturally, I must speak mainly from the standpoint of a taxon- 
omist, and furthermore I shall confine my remarks to a consideration of 
the higher plants. The general situation as to the morphology of the 
higher plants, , both the gymnosperms and angiosperms, has been so 
carefully summarized and so admirably presented by Coulter and 
Chamberlain that no further words are needed to emphasize the 
importance of modern morphology to a sound taxonomy. 
Notwithstanding the amazing progress in modern morphology and 
the fact that our knowledge of the life-history of individual organisms 
nnvitation paper read at the symposium on "The Genetic Relationship of 
Organisms" before the Botanical Society of America at Philadelphia, December 30, 
1914. 
[The Journal for February (2: 71-110) was issued 3 Ap 19 15.] 
Ill 
