ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN CATTLE 141 
of cattle of such an extremely mixed type. In regard 
to the domesticated cattle of Biblical times, I may 
make the following extracts from an article contri- 
buted by myself to Murray's Dictionary of the Bible : — 
" In ancient Hebrew, as in modern English, several 
terms were used to designate domesticated cattle, 
according to sex, age, etc. Although each appears 
to have had a more or less definite meaning, they are 
frequently translated indifferently in the Authorised 
Version as bull, cow, ox, bullock, heifer, calf, etc. 
Among the more important of these terms, bdkdr 
(derived from a root signifying to cleave, and hence 
to plough) seems to be properly used for adult cattle 
of either sex, especially those suitable for ploughing. 
It is translated bullock in Isaiah, chap. Ixv. v. 25, cow 
in Ezekiel, chap. iv. v. 15, and oxen in Genesis, chap, 
xii. v. 16. SJior, although occasionally used collec- 
tively, denotes a single individual, whether bull, cow, 
ox, or calf. Its Chaldee equivalent tor (from the 
same root as the Greek tauros and the English steer^ 
occurs in the later books of the Old Testament. Par^ 
bull, and parah^ cow, are generally used respectively 
for a young bull or bullock, and for a heifer or young 
cow used for sacrifice. In Judges, chap. vi. v. 25, how- 
ever, par may signify a much older bull. aother 
term for a heifer is aigleh, which occurs in Hosea, 
chap. iv. V. 16. Aigel, or egel^ on the other hand, 
denotes a calf of either sex, properly of the first year, 
although it may be used occasionally for older 
animals. Finally, the word abirim {the strong ones) is 
used in a few passages for bulls, as in Psalm xxii. v. 
12. No animals in the rural economy of the Israelites 
were held in higher esteem than cattle, on whose 
labours depended the ordinary operations of farming. 
