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353 
good and bad visualisers with one another with respect to memory of facts of visual 
perception, and found no superiority in the case of the former class. One of 
Wood worth's experiments* was to present to the subject a relation by means of 
two terms, a and h, between which it held, and a third term, c, for which a fourth 
term, x, was to be found bearing the same relation to c that h did to a. The terms 
were cards of different colours and shapes, and also significant words, such as : — 
London : England :: Paris : x, 
Mice : cats :: worms : x. 
The subjects' introspections showed that, although in difficult cases the 
relation may come to consciousness in the form of a name or some sort of mental 
imagery, in some cases the relation is felt without a name or mental image of 
any kind, and in easy cases the answer comes immediately, with very little 
consciousness at all. 
Winch "f tested the memory of school-children for drawings under conditions 
in which mental "imaging" immediately after the period of exposure was either 
enjoined or forbidden. No superioi-ity in memorising-power was shown by the 
children under the former of the two conditions. 
Watt j and Ach§ reached their conclusions in the course of experiments on 
reaction-times. It was found by both observers that the reaction was determined 
in the mind of the subject by the general purpose or known nature of the task set 
by the experimenter, often at a very low degree of consciousness. According to 
Ach, image and stimulus are both secondary to the purpose or task. 
(2) In the realm of psychopathology there is overwhelming evidence that loss 
of mental functioning may take other forms than those of loss of sensation or of 
mental imagery. In particular, the researches of Marie || and his schoolIT into the 
problem of aphasia seem to point to a priority of thought over sensory content of 
any kind. 
(3) The practical uselessness for education of the prevalent psychological 
theory of reasoning is becoming more and more apparent in educational circles. 
Outside the walls of the infant school, education deals primarily with the training 
and development of reasoning as such, but this cannot be considered, after the 
manner of tiie faculty psychologists, as a general capacity fuuctioning independently 
of the material on and through which it works. Each school subject has potenti- 
* R. S. Woodwoith: "The Consciousness of Relation," i'sx/ys Philosophical and Psychological in 
Honour of William James, 1908, pp. 489—492. 
+ W. H. Winch: "The Function of Images," Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientific 
Methods, Vol. v. No. 13, pp. 337 ff., June 18, 1908. 
X H. J. Watt : Experimentelle Beitriige zu einer Theorie dcs Denkens, 1905. 
§ N. Ach: Ueber die Willenstdtigkeit und das Denken, Gottingen, 1905. 
!| Pierre Marie: Semaine Medicale, May 23, Oct. 17, and Nov. 28, 1906. Pierre Marie: " Sur la 
Fonction du Langage," Revue de Philosophie, 1907. 
II Francois Moutier : L'Aphasie de Broca : Paris, Steinlieil, 1908. L. Dugas : " Uue Tlieorie Nouvelle 
de I'Aphasie," JoioviaZ de Psychologic, Sept. Oct., 1908. 
