W. K. Macdonell 
375 
length of service is seldom recorded; slaves are not uncommon — in two "sepulcreta 
familiae domus Aug. Carthag.," 331 males and 215 females have their ages recorded, 
and I presume most of these were slaves or freedmen, and slaves are mentioned 
elsewhere, but very few freedmen. There are a few pagan priests and priestesses, 
and a considerable number of Christians appear, their dates extending from the 
3rd to the 6th century A.D. 
Frequencies. There is the usual piling up of frequencies at ages denoted by 
multiples of 5, but the effect on expectation of life is not so marked as in the case 
of Rome and Hispania. 
Expectation of Life. In Africa the conditions were much more favourable to 
longevity than in Rome and Hispania. 
Up to 40 years of age the expectation for males was not more than 3 above 
that for females, and after 40 it was almost exactly the same. As compared with 
Rome, the expectation for both sexes was higher at all ages, the excess ranging 
from 26 for males and 24| for females at birth, to about 5 at the age of 60 ; as 
compared with Hispania it was higher at all ages up to 90, especially in the case 
of females, the excess ranging from a maximum of about 12. As compared with 
modern English the expectation is lower for the first 30 years of life, ranging 
downwards from about 8 in the case of males and about 11 in the case of females, 
but after 40 it is higher and goes on increasing until the end. 
Conclusions. Even allowing for the scantiness of the data we may draw the 
following broad conclusions: 
1. The evidence of the inscriptions brings out very clearly the extreme 
unhealthiness of ancient Rome, and on this point it agrees with the literary 
evidence*. 
2. Leaving out of consideration ages above 75 we see that, contrary to 
modem experience, the expectation of life of females in Rome and Hispania 
was lower than that of males ; in Africa there was little difference between the 
sexes in this respect, but the males had a slight advantage up to 40 years of age. 
This would point to special influences adversely affecting the health of females in 
the Roman empire which no longer operate in the modern world. 
3. The expectation of life in Rome and Hispania, especially in the case of 
females, compares very unfavourably with that of modern England at the early 
ages, less unfavourably in middle age, but in old age it is higher, owing perhaps, 
as I have suggested, to severe selection in early life. 
4. In Africa the expectation of life was remarkably high, especially after 
40 years of age, and may be due in some degree, not only to climate and strict 
selection in childhood, but also to the considerable influx of colonists from Italy which 
* Friedliinder, Sittengesehickte Roms 8 , i. 39 If. 
48—2 
