Til!'; MAliAKAIJS. 
178 
horizons can be obtained by jilancint; tIiroii<ili Appendix 1. The 
characters of the coals will be dealt with in a He])arate section. 
The ordinary sandstones ol the Uarakar series are not only very 
Mode of outcrop of iiiassiv( , but also as a rule remarkably free 
sandstones. from joints, except master joint planes that 
extend vertically lor considerable distances (see J'late 24, 1). The 
coals and shales of tlie coal series, on tlie other hand, are not 
only well-bedded, but are l)roken up by a ^reat abundance of 
joints in intersecting series. These differences, as well as the differ- 
ent hardnesses of the respective rocks, lead to very striking con- 
trasts in the modes of outcro]). Since they afford but little soil, 
the massive sandstones crop out at the surface almost everywhere 
on the hill-slo})es and in the stream-beds. They also give rise to 
magnificent vertical cliffs, which are seen to the best advantage 
on the southern edge of the Kurasia field, the southern face of 
Bartunga Hill being especially notewortliy (see Plate 20). The 
nalas or water-courses being often of steep gradient, are adorned 
with a succession of rock-falls and waterfalls over barriers of sand- 
stone. 
The coal and shale, on the other hand, on account of their 
Mode of outcrop of Softness compared with that of the massive sand- 
coal seams. stone, are never found exposed on the hill- 
slopes, being covered either by soil or by sandstone detritus derived from 
the overlying sandstone cliffs ; their outcrops are confined to the ravines 
and water-conrses. There are three chief modes of occurrence of 
coal seams. 
The coal may crop out at the foot of a sandstone cliff (some- 
Coal outcrops in cli£f.s times as much as 80 to 100 feet high), 
and ravines. forming the head of a stream, as is well seen in 
numerous ravines around Bartunga Hill ; in these cases the coal 
is sometimes clearly exposed and sometimes partly or entirely 
hidden by debris from the sandstone chffs, there being insufficient 
water, except perhaps in the rainy season, to remove debris. The 
coal series usually projects from beneath the sandstone, forming a 
succession of steps down the ravine, often partly hidden by boulders 
and jungle ; but the coal itself is sometimes undercut. There is 
usually a small spring dripping over the rocks. 
Secondly, the coal seam may crop out at the foot of a 
Coal outcrops in sandstone fall across a river or watercoursci. 
watcr-falis <u "ghags." The coal Seam is usually undercut beneath the 
