On the Conditions of Wheat-Ch'Oiving in India. 
31 
duly considered, cau any doubt exist that the expansion of the 
wheat-cultivation of the Panjab is not endangering in any way 
the fruitfulness of the soil ? Two thirds of the annual cultiva- 
tion consists of other than wheat crops, manuring is regularly 
resorted to when found necessary, and at least a seasonal if not 
an annual rotation is regularly observed.' 
Reaping, Thrashing, Winiiowing. — Reaping begins about the 
end of April, and the whole crop is in-gathered by the end of 
May or the beginning of June. The practice described in con- 
nection with the Montgomery district is fairly representative, 
though it must be recollected that the Panjab is larger than 
Great Britain, and that it would be as correct to say that the 
wheat of Essex was characteristic of the British Isles as to say 
that Montgomery absolutely represented the Panjab. 
The reapers are called Ichva, and belong chiefly to the class of village 
servants-. But they do not contine themselves to their own village, they go 
wherever they can find work. The usual pay is one ^jwV (seven seers) of 
grain, or four annas in cash per diem, with five sheaves. [This might be 
expressed as sixpence a day and the sheaves.] An ordinary reaper will cut 
down one landl and a half in the day ; and a strong and practised hand 
will do as much as two kandls. (The kandl is half a rood.) On an average 
five men will cut down an acre a day. Heaping is carried on during the 
moonlight nights in the last few hours before day if the straw is very dry, 
as the moisture of the night air is supposed to strengthen the stalk and pre- 
vent the ears falling off. If clouds gather, great efforts are made to get iu the 
crops, as hail is much feared at this season ; but hail is very uncommon in 
this district. As soon as the grain is cut it is stacked. The reaper gets his 
share when the crop has been thrashed and divided. 
There are several ways of thrashing. The most common is 
to yoke a number of bullocks together, fasten the one at the left 
hand of the line to a post, round which the straw to be thrashed 
is piled, and drive them round and round from right to left. 
Wheat and barley are, however, first thrashed with the phalha, 
or thrashing-frame. 
A pair of bullocks are yoked to the phallia and driven round the stake 
about which the straw is heaped ; there may be several phalhas at work 
one after the other, but there are never more than four. One man is re- 
quired with each, and a couple more to throw back the straw into the heap. 
One pair of bullocks with ihe^jhalha will thrash the produce of a quarter of 
an acre a day. They will work eight hours at a stretch, from 8 A.ir. to 
4 P.M. in the sun. Buffaloes are never used for thrashing. When wheat or 
barley has been thrashed with the phalha, the straw is shaken up with the 
pitchfork and thrown on one side, while the grain falls to the bottom. 
In the Bannu district cows and even donkeys are used on the 
thrashing-floor. In Mianwali thrashing is frequently done by 
' A very different state of affairs exists in Burma (indeed, almost in 
Bengal), where three fourths of the cultivation consists year after year of rice, 
with practically no rotation ; but, still, this state of affairs is not attended with 
indications of deterioration of soil. 
