lOS 
FOREST AND STREAM. 
[Aug. s, iSgg. 
propoftion to the difficulties of transportation. Where a 
district is open, so that horses can be employed, or where 
streams or other waterways permit the use of boats, or 
when the work can be done in winter, so that provisions 
can be packed upon sleds, the problem is much simplified. 
When, however, a camp is to be establislied, or a party is 
to travel in some forest or mountain district where neither 
animals, boats nor other means of conveyance can be 
utilized, and provisions must be packed upon the backs of 
men, the most careful forethought must be given to its 
preparation. 
The problem of transportation cannot be intelligently 
treated without some knowledge of the difficulties to be 
surmounted. While each geographical section is usually 
distinguished by local peculiarities (such as those dite 
to climate), topographical difficulties, as a whole, may be 
conveniently divided, as they are connected with prairies 
and table lands, mountains, waterways, swamps, forests, 
ice and snow. 
Prairies, table lands, ice, or other flat, open stirfaces 
usually offer, as principal difficulties, those dependent 
upon temperature and climate alone. The table lands of 
northern Mexico, for example, are swept during rainy 
seasons by storms so severe that gullies, cartons or arroyos. 
such as do not normally obstruct travel, are rendered 
well nigh impassable. Similar surfaces in the North 
are visited during the winter months by high winds and 
storms, which often interrupt or entirely suspend outdoor 
operations. Supplies can tisually be transported over 
flat, open country by stout, covered wagons ; and sleds can 
be used during the winters in the colder regions. 
Mountain districts are characterized either by such 
abrupt rockj!- surfaces as exist in the Andes or the Alps, 
or by gentler inclines covered with forests and traversed 
by streams, such as may be seen in Arkansas or in the 
State of Washington. The difficulties of tran.sportation 
presented by the former class are commonly local, and 
although severe, not widespread in their application. The 
difficulties presented by the more normal type of mountain 
lands more frequently encountered by the engineer are 
often very considerable, because of the forests with which 
th^y are covered or of the streams likely to be encountered. 
Advantage is sometimes taken of the beds of shallow 
streams by employing them as roads. The climatic 
differences between the North and the South should also 
be noted. The immediate concentration of storm water 
into streams is often very formidable in the South; while 
the North is characterized by snow and ice accumulating 
on the sides of the mountains, to be precipitated later 
into the vallej^s below. 
Waterways may extend toward the objective point, so as 
to facilitate transportation, or they may be unexpectedly 
encountered as obstructions in overland journeys. A 
waterway extending toward the objective point is an 
advantage from the standpoint of transportation in direct 
proportion to the absence of rapids or of shoals. The 
danger of such travel is much simplified by prior knowl- 
edge of the peculiarities of the stream; but in a journey 
upon a watercourse of which no description is available, 
constant watchfulness is necessary to avoid rapids, the 
presence of which is sometimes not evident until it is too 
late to avoid them. Even with the aid of pilots, failures 
to pass rapids safely are numerous. Several wrecks oc- 
curred daily, during the past season, along the famous 
White Horse Rapids, leading into the Klondike gold fields, 
although local pilots were in many instances employed. 
Shoals are to be feared, as are likewise ponds or bogs, 
over which a small river sometimes spreads. The latter 
are sometimes obstructed by grasses or other vegetation 
to such an extent as to be well nigh impassable. Rivers, 
lakes or ponds unexpectedly encountered in overland 
journeys must be crossed by fording, by felling trees so 
as to form natural bridges, or on improvised rafts. Solid 
iqe is never to be feared; Imt solid ice is not apt to form 
on rapid streams, although the snow by which the ice is 
covered frequently conceals this fact. A foundation of 
good ice permits the use of sleds, drawn by horses, dogs 
or men. The presence of animals, however, is not always 
wholly desirable under such circumstances, since provi- 
sion for them, as well as for the party, must be trans- 
ported. 
Swamps may occur in open country or in forests. They 
are not apt to be large in the former case; in the latter 
they may be divided according as the water is deep and 
navigable or as it is shallow. No difficulties are to be 
anticipated either from the deep-M'ater or open-country 
swamps. In the Southern States the former are navigable, 
and the latter, being generallj^ confined to the borders of 
lakes and ponds, are consequently limited in extent. The 
shallow-water timbered swamp is, however, very formid- 
able, and can generally be penetrated by pedestrians only. 
The cedar swamp of the Lake Superior region, for ex- 
ample, is covered by a growth of white cedar or arbor 
vita. The light foliage which characterizes these trees 
permits them to sustain vigorous branches close to the 
ground. These meet and cross one another, so that a 
passage through them greatly resembles a progress 
through a cultivated hedge. The roots of the trees lie 
partially out of the mud, and form the most desirable 
places on which to step. While apparently sound, they are 
usually slippery and sometimes decayed, so that the 
traveler, in stepping or springing from one to" the other, 
encumbered by a heavy burden and obstructed by the 
small, wiry branches, is apt to slip or fall. The constant 
use of arms and limbs required, together with the strain 
or shock produced by the shifting of the heavy burden 
upon the shoulders whenever the traveler slips," combine 
with the abundance of annoying insects to delay and 
obstruct progress through a territory of such a nature. 
One of the difficulties to be surmounted in such a dis- 
trict consists in the location of a camp at nightfall. The 
termination of the normal working day may find the 
party where encampment is well nigh impossible. Under 
such circumstances it is usually best to go forward so 
long as there is a prospect of finding a dr}'- or otherwise 
suitable camping ground — a discovery which may not be 
made for many hours. The day's work cannot therefore 
be confined within the ordinary limits. It is usually best 
to permit the party to remain for some extra time in 
camp after such an unusual strain. The so-called 
tamarack swamp of the northern Central States differs 
from the cedar swamp just described in that there 
is an absence of the dense underfoliage. The cypress is 
the characteristic swamp land tree of the Southern States. 
The open bog or "muskeg" of the extreme Northwest is 
thus described by Prof. Russell:^ 
"The muskeg is a characteristic feature o£ northern topography. 
From the international boundary to the Arctic Sea the term is 
applied to alluvial areas with insufficient drainage, over which 
moss has accumulated to a considerable depth. These swamps are 
usually covered with tamarack and fir trees. The typical muskeg 
is traversed by meandering streams, having deep channels, but a 
scarcely perceptible current. Stagnant pools become coated over 
with a moss of sufficient strength to temporarily sustain the weight 
of a man. In places the surface is broken by tall hummocks, the 
teks lies feimnes of the voya^eur, which turn under the foot, and 
sooner or later precipitate the passing pedestrian into the mud 
or water below." 
Forests are to be considered principally as they aggra- 
vate or affect the difficulties due to the presence of 
mountains, waterways or swamps. They are of them- 
selves difficult in direct proportion to the presence of 
undergrowth. Surfaces covered by large trees, the lower 
limbs of which have fallen away, present no obstacles to 
foot passengers or pack animals, while surfaces covered 
by younger growth are difficult because of thick under- 
foliage, and because their plants stand so much closer 
together. "Windfalls" must be considered. They are 
the results of tornadoes or of natural decay, and present a, 
spectacle of trees piled upon one another in utter con- 
fusion, the trunks and limbs intermingling, and usually 
penetrated by wiry second-growth saplings. A passage 
is made over such a district by walking cautiously back 
and forth, up and down over the trunks and limbs.'"' It 
is ordinarily impossible to proceed in a day's march more 
than two or three miles, as measured in a straight line, 
over such a district. 
A considerable range of experiences may thus be encoun- 
tered upon surfaces coming under the head of forest lands. 
The passage may be over clear ground, between widely 
separated trunks of large trees ; or through the thick, wiry 
growth of a young forest; or over windfall, or it may be 
over swamps or mountains, difficult of themselves, but 
now doubly so through the presence of the foliage. Many 
contingencies are thus likely to be encountered in forests, 
and all are frequently encountered within short spaces. 
Considerable trouble may be experienced from mos- 
quitoes and similar insects. This is frequently so great 
as to pass the limit of simple annoyance. Tents hastily 
erected at nightfall by men fatigued with a long day's 
march are often invaded by these pests to such an extent 
as to interfere with rest. 
Unless waterways or other openings traverse a forest in 
the direction of the objective point, or a party is large 
enough to construct its own trails or roads, burdens usu- 
ally have to be borne upon the backs of men whenever a 
forest is to be traversed. 
Snow and ice are to be considered, because, like trees, 
they distort or change normal topographical conditions. 
Ordinariljr impassable regions may be penetrated, or 
passable regions rendered impassable, by the presence or 
absence of ice and snow. Deep, dry snow, such as is en- 
countered in the Northern forests, is very difficult to 
traverse. Such deposits are sometimes covered by a 
crust of sufficient strength, improving the conditions of 
travel. Should the crust be too weak to bear the full 
weight of the traveler, yet so strong that it cannot be 
broken or forced aside by the limbs, the passage becomes 
exceptionally exhausting. The foot must be lifted so as 
to be placed tipon the top of the crust, which gives way 
suddenly when the full weight of the body is brought upon 
it. Not infrequently the early morning hours offgr a 
hard crush, which softens later under the influence of the 
sun, so as to make treading difficult eA^en upon snowshoes ; 
and parties often stop and wait for the night to restore the 
practicable surface. Deep snow or ordinary crust should 
never be attempted by heavy draft animals. When the 
snow is hard, or the ice solid, a .surface is presented, the 
desirability of which cannot be excelled. Long journeys 
are sometimes undertaken in the wilder portions of Mani- 
toba and other Hudson Bay Provinces in winter, in pref- 
erence to summer, for these ' reasons. Heavy veMcles 
make journeys over the ice bounding the shores of Lake 
Superior that would not be normally possible through the 
dense foliage of the adjoining land. Northern swamp 
lands, commonly presenting great diffictilties, may usually 
be penetrated with ease during the winter season. Water- 
ways too shallow for boats during the summer become 
available for sleds ditring the winter. Heavy loads can 
sometimes be transported over a limited extent of deep 
snow by sprinkling it witli water, which, freezing and 
compacting the snow, often affords a good footing. This 
method is employed on an extensive scale in some of the 
lumber districts of the Northwest. 
Supplies ai-e transported either by boats, wagons, sleds, 
:miuials, or upon the backs of men. 
Boats intended to traverse rapids are sometimes sup- 
plied with life saving appliances, so as to resemble ordi- 
nary life boats. This was the case in the late survey of 
the canon of the Colorado by Mr. Robert B. Stanton.^ 
Weight is usually a matter of much importance. A boat 
that can be lifted from one waterway to another, or be 
conveyed around rapids or other points of difficulty, is 
geitcrally desirable. Draft should also be considered. 
Rafts and scows are often improvised for crossing un- 
expected bodies of water; and no supply list is complete 
unless, in view of such necessities, it is proAnded with 
long wire nails and ropes. A sntall raft 6 by oft. in size 
was once constructed by the writer, of dry cedar logs, 
fastened with wire nails and the bark of the "moose 
tree." This raft, built in a few hours, carried himself 
and one companion for five consecutive days down a 
series of small lakes and rivers. Whenever rapids are 
to be passed, the provisions should be divided among 
several boats; or, if there be but one boat, tliey should 
be, in part at least, landed and carried around the rapids, 
to be restored to the boat below. 
Wagons may generally be best selected by assuming- 
that they will have to be driven over boulders, stumps, or 
similarly rough surfaces. They should be provided with 
tops, wherever storm.s are liable to be encountered. Tools 
for making repairs should be placed in every wagon. In 
each district the selection of vehicles to be thus used as 
transports is controlled by local customs, which, being 
founded upon experience, should not be disregarded. 
3 "Explorations in the Far North," by Frank Russell, 1898, page 
4. Published by the University of Iowa. 
^ The origin of windfalls is well treated in Chapter VI. of the 
Third Annual Report of the Pennsylvania Department of Agri- 
culture. 
3 Trans, Am. Soc. C E., Vol. XXVI., April, 1892. 
Sleds are sometimes provided with adjustable runners 
for passing along narrow trails or between boulders. 
Last season's trail over the White Pass, leading into the 
Alaskan gold fields, was of such a nature as to restrict 
traffic to within a gauge of about 26in. Some sleds had 
to be abandoned, and many delays were occasioned by the 
necessary alterations of others to meet this condition. 
Hand sleds are useful, since they may be drawm by either 
men or dogs. The Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic Rail- 
way employed toboggans dttring the construction of its 
road throughout the season of 1887. 
Draft and Pack Animals. — The best draft animals are ' 
oxen, horses, mules and dogs. Reindeer have lately been 
suggested for work in the North, but their use is yet in' 
an experimental stage. While mules and donkeys are em- 
ployed frequently, and oxen sometimes, the main reliance 
is placed upon horses. The use of dogs appears to be 
restricted to the drawing of sleds over flat ice or snow-, 
covered surfaces. Horses and mules should not, as a 
rule, be employed for long journeys, unless some provision 
for them can be gathered by the way ; otherwise, an undue 
proportion of the burden must consist in food for their 
sustenance. Horses trained to the conditions they must 
encounter are generally to be preferred; Indian ponies, 
for example, will scrape through a moderate layer of 
snow to find the dried grass below it. Dogs are prob- 
ably the most economical animals for winter service in 
the North, because their food requirements are so nearly 
similar to those of man.* The mule and the horse are 
the best of the lower pack animals, while man himself 
must often be relied upon for this service. Horses and 
mules are provided with pack saddles over which the,! 
burden is uniformly distributed, a task requiring con- ' 
siderable skill and experience. Man is to be preferred as 
a pack animal because his services are available in other 
ways than in the carrying of burdens. Indian packmen, 
capable of conveying a burden of loolbs. throughout the 
entire da}-- over the roughest country, and who will pre- 
pare the meals and camping ground, are easily procur- 
able. The burden is made up by means of the ordinary 
pack straps ; the load, being wrapped in the sleeping 
iDlankets, is fastened by the pack straps and then ad- 
justed to the shoulders of the carrier. 
[to be continued.] 
A good pair of dogs can draw SOOIbs. over an ordinary frozen 
.surface. A team of five dogs, which can readily haul 6001bs., costs 
from $100 to $1,000, according to circumstances. It is reported that at 
Dawson, during the present season, $2,500 was refused for a team 
of five dogs capable of hauling over 2001bs. eacb. 
Massachusetts Shore Birds. 
Boston, July 31. — The open season on Massachusetts 
shore birds began July 15, but not nutch shooting has yet 
been done. Mr. L. M. Paine was one of the first to go 
down to Chatham to look for shore birds. His success 
Avas not verj' marked, there being only flights of small 
birds such as sandpipers and reed birds. No summer 
yellowlegs have, yet appeared in good numbers. A few 
redheads were also seen. Wet and foggy weather is ex- 
pected to bring better flights. L. W. de Pass has reports 
from Plum Island, where he, with friends, owns a camp. 
No good flights of birds have yet been seen, and but little 
shooting done. A few small "peep" have been bagged, but 
no large birds. The gunners are somewhat worried over 
the idea of the new Sunday law being strictly enforced. 
This law was framed at the instigation of some of the 
land and waterfront owners along the coast, as well as 
land owners just out of the cities and large towns. It 
strictly prohibits all Sunday shooting'. It is a well-known 
fact that busy Boston tuerchants and business and pro- 
fessional men. fond of the gun, have for many years been 
in the habit of "getting of? duty" Saturday afternoon in 
time to catch a late train for some favorite shooting 
ground along shore or elsewhere. Business has compelled 
them to return on Monday morning. Without accusing 
them of Sunday shooting, it may be stated that nobody has 
troubled them with any Stmday shooting law so far. If 
the new law is to be enforced, they wiU not go shooting on 
Saturday, and if they cannot go on Saturday, they will not 
go at all, for the good reason that they cannot afford the 
time. It comes from some of the friends of the law, liv- 
ing at several points along the south and north shores, that 
they "shall see that the law is enforced." and gunners hear 
that one or two sherift's have been notified that they must 
arrest persons found gunning on Sunday. Results will be 
anxiously watched, because some very respectable mer- 
chants propose to go down to Chatham and other points 
over Sunday, the same as ever. 
Among the late catches reported by Boston anglers are 
noted Mr, and Mrs. A. W. Lyon, with five trout, taken 
near Haines Landing, weighing from 1J/2 to 3lbs. Mr. 
John R. Mitchell, fishing at the same resort, recently took 
ten trout, the largest weighing 4341bs. Mr. and Mrs. H. 
W. Petter, of Boston, have been fishing at the Upper 
Dam, with good success. Mrs. Petter is reported to have 
taken six trout in one day, the largest weighing 61bs. A. 
B, Nelson, of Boston, is also having good sport at the 
same point. Special. 
Calif ofnia County Restrktions. * 
Redlands_, Cal., July 22. — Editor Forest and Stream: 
Doves are plenty, but only a few ha^-e been shot. I was 
out on the i6th and found quite a number of birds. Only 
shot a few. They were fat and fine. I found rabbits 
plenty, and saw two broods of blue quail that had been 
hatched out this season. They were about grown. I find 
by diligent search that the Virginia quail have been planted 
in various sections of California, notably in Fresno and 
Los Angeles counties. The former has also prairie, 
chickens and Japanese pheasants. I note with pleasure 
that the various counties are passing laws to prohibit the 
sale or export of game and fish (trout) a,nd to limit the 
bag. The seasons are being shortened, and on deer and 
trout many counties have no more open season. Larger 
guns than lo-bore are prohibited, and one county goes so 
far as to place repeaters under ban. Doubt is expressed as 
to whether this last ordinance will prove constitutional. 
Indeed, I see no need of it as long as the bag of birds is 
limited. Reelpoot. 
