St A.ND STREAM. 
X necks, these being superseded by boards with a 
haped opening in one end. The foxes were then 
sed, one at a time, through a small door into a second 
m, where they were received by a gang of men and 
mined as to sex. The females were all released, while 
majority of the males were killed by breaking their 
ks, the intention being to leave one male to every three 
ales. All foxes liberated were marked as previously 
sd, and this mark was repeated whenever an in- 
dual was captured more than once, with the result 
by the end of the season some animals had lost 
t of the fur on their tails. 
The possibility of rendering the foxes polygamous 
ains to be seen, and it will naturally take a series of 
ful observations extending over a number of years 
efinitely determine this point. At present it can only 
aid that the catch of the second season on St. George 
not fall below that of the first, and some observations 
N that the male foxes will have intercourse with 
e than one female, while the bringing together of the 
lals that would under natural conditions be widely 
tered is a most important factor in rendering them 
gamous. The curious fact presents itself that in 
y instance save one the number of males taken ex- 
ed that of the females, even toward the close of the 
ping sason, but it is, of course, possible that this may 
.ue to the attraction of the females for the males and 
to any excess in the birthrate of the latter, 
€r. Judge's observations have made it clear that the 
s have no predilection for any particular locality, 
question of food being the main factor in determin- 
their distribution. This was proved by trapping at 
ous parts of the island, the result being that com- 
tively few animals were taken save at the village, 
e those caught at one locality would subsequently 
aken at another. Consequently hy judicious baiting 
can be readily en- 
l from all parts of 
sland to the vicinity 
the village, where 
can be taken by 
esale, in such man- 
that the total num- 
oi foxes on the is- 
can be pretty near- 
scertained, as well 
e proportions of the 
s. The blue foxes 
to lack the pro- 
ial craft of the 
r species, for not 
did they readily 
r the pen, but, as 
^^n by the marks, 
entered again and 
■n, some individuals 
g captured no less 
five times, while a 
were taken twice in 
ession at intervals 
ibout ten minutes, 
t the scent of man 
it the corral should 
leter the foxes from 
ring is not surpris- 
since, except during 
trapping season, 
have no cause to 
him. Such precau- 
s as that of igklng 
animals out in a 
so that they may be 
d over water seem 
er absurd, the more 
lat when pressed by 
^er they will even 
lur the skinned 
es of their own 
ies. One piece of 
rmation desired, as 
vhether or not the 
s would wander off 
he ice floes when they were bemg ted, has not yet 
obtained, because, curiously enough, durmg the two 
s that the experiment has been made the ice has not 
jened to touch St. George. . 
ncidentally, Mr. Judge has made observations on the 
, size and condition of foxes, and has shown that 
>elt does not improve with age, as has commonly been 
d, but that the vearling^ and two-year-olds have the 
,fur. As for weight, the smallest fox weighed a little 
8 pounds, the largest a trifle more than 14, the 
t majority weighing in the vicinity of 10 pounds, 
he outcome of these experiments will be awaited 
much interest, and if by a little artificial selection 
environment a naturally monogamous animal can be 
ered polygamous, the supply of blue fox furs will be 
rially increased. 
'he table appended gives the results of the catch for 
season of 1898-99, and the total number of animals 
seem rather surprising to one familiar with the 
t only remains to add that the greatest number taken 
ly one evening was 245, of which 61 were killed ; the 
nd best night's work was 211, and of these 57 were 
Ei. r 
oxes taken on St. George during the season of 
99: 
e blue foxes trapped and killed 334 
.e blue foxes otherwise killed 34 
ite foxes killed, males and females 18 
e blue foxes trapped and released iio 
Hale blue foxes trapped and released 389 
Total 885." 
lere is every prospect that if the Government would 
hold of the business of protecting and breeding fur 
lapka it might establish there industries which would 
pay back all the money expended for them. Such 
rve's. besides paying for themselves directly, would 
to keep up the general fur- supply of Alaska, for the 
flow into the non-protected parts of the Territory 
d tend constantly to restock it. G, B. G. 
The Hunter Stage of Society, 
This article is mainly ~an abbreviated translation of 
papers by M. Demolins in the first volume of "La Science 
Sociale," but I have not hesitated to give fresh examples 
and to add qualifications to many of his propositions. 
Enrirooment. 
As Europe is so largely deforested and Cultured one 
must go elsewhere to study the hunter type in its puritv. 
Indeed, at the present day it is not easy to find people 
who are pure hunters. The Australians do not cultivate 
the soil, but their conditions of life are somewhat peculiar, 
and it_ will be better to consider the hunting folk who 
dwell in" tropical forests where the environment is fairly 
uniform. 
The greatest forest region is that of the valleys of the 
Amazon, Orinoco, and of the rivers of the Guianas, an 
area about equal to that of Europe. 
The physical features, climatic, meteorological and geo- 
graphical, which deserve a more extended consideration 
than can here be given to them, detennine the nature of 
the vegetable products, Avhich in this case constitute an 
immense forest. The prolonged humidity permits the 
growth of trees, and these by cutting off light and air stifle 
the growth of grass. Vegetation is rampant, savage man 
is powerless against it. As Bates says. "In the equatorial 
forests the aspect is the same, or nearly so, every day in 
the year; budding, flowering, fruiting and leaf-shedding 
are always going on in one species or other. It is never 
either spring, summer or autumn, but each day is a com- 
bination of all three." 
Occupation. 
The clima-tic conditions and the luxuriance of the 
iK THE CLEARWATER COUNTKV — THE CLEARWATER. 
Photo by Mr. A. M. Stevens. 
forest render agriculture ver^f laborious, especially in the 
low-lying lands ; the line of least resistance is found in 
living by hunting. There is something to be said in favor 
of this mode of life. 
The attractions of hunting are ver}' great. In all grades 
of even the most artificial or civilized societies there are 
people who have an almost irresistible impulse to hunt ; 
the instinct of the poacher is similar to that of the aristo- 
cratic sportsman who slaughters half-tame pheasants or 
who stalks deer, or to that of the hunter who travels 
afar in search of big game. This fascination is evidently 
felt by those who arc practically compelled by circum- 
stances to become and remain hunters. 
Hunting requires no foresight. An intimate knowledge 
of the habits of animals is necessary for existence, but 
no forethought is required to maintain the supply. The 
breeding of animals for food or industrial requirements 
belongs to a later stage of culture, the sole exception being 
the domestication of the dog, which has been more or less 
thoroughly accomplished by most hunting peoples. 
The capture of each day provides the food of each day, 
and this must be consumed immediately, for it cannot be 
preserved. Various methods have been devised for dry- 
ing or smoking meat, but even so it cannot be kept for 
long periods like tubers or cereals. 
Hunting is suited to the generality of men,' for it is 
interesting, and it calls forth intelligence and the satis- ' 
faction of outwitting animals ; it gratifies the lust of kill- 
ing, and supplies an exciting element of chance, which 
keeps hope alive through disappointments. The food is 
stimulating and enjoyable. No preparatory work or 
thought is required to provide the supply of food. These 
conditions appeal to the majority of mankind. 
Although there are no great possibilities in this mode 
of life, the chase provides for the diverse wants of man. 
The meat serves for food. The Eskimos prove that it is 
possible to live exclusively upon a meat diet; in warmer 
climates there are numerous edible roots, shoots, leaves 
and fruits which can be had in the various seasons for the 
picking. The skins provide clothing, materials for habi- 
tations, vessels and the like. It is only in temperate and 
cold climates that clothes are necessary for warmth, and 
decency requires but a minimum of clothing which im 
tropical countries is provided by bark or leaves. The 
same practically applies to habitations. It is mainly the 
hunters of the prairies, or the inhabitants of other treeless 
districts like the frozen lands, who make use of skin tents. 
Under the same conditions various portions of the animals 
are employed for different purposes which the vegetable 
world supplies in the tropics with the expenditure of less 
labor to men — such, for example, as fibers and receptacles 
like gourds. The feathers of birds furnish finery all overj 
the world, but perhaps nowhere have they been employed 
to the extent that they are, and were, in tropical South 
•America. The hunters there can live isolated from more 
complicated societies as they are self-contained, and thus 
they retain a simpler, and probably more primitive, social 
condition. 
The pursuit and capture of prey require special quali-> 
ties : agility, dexterity and strength, in addition to wood- 
craft. These aptitudes are most particularly found among 
the young men, hence there arises a tendency for su- 
periority of youth over age, unless social institutions are 
evolved to counteract it, as, for example, occurs in Austra- 
lia. In any case the youths are early able to provide for 
themselves, and in consequence they set up an establish- 
ment as soon as possible. In extreme cases they retain 
to themselves the fruit of their labors, and repudiate the 
duty of assisting their aged parents. As will be stated 
shortly, the means for subsistence are strictly limited, and 
the first biologic law — that of self-preservation — is im- 
perative, come what may. 
It is one of the first duties of social organization to 
modify this crude state of affairs and to prevent 
the children from arrogating to themselves an un- 
due amount of authority. The arrogance of youth 
is a natural outcome of the feebleness of parental 
control. 
The development of 
primary individualism is 
the result of this mode 
of life. This form of 
individualism is of the 
lowest, that is, of the 
least social, character. 
It is usually to the 
hunter's interest to iso- 
late himself and to hunt 
his prey on his own ac- 
count. Some people 
temporarily combine to 
drive their quarry into 
nets or traps, but hunt- 
ing is chiefly done single 
handed. 
The tendency to in- ■ 
dividualism is still fur- 
ther developed by the 
facilities which hunting 
offers to the establish- 
ment of new and dis- 
tinct households ; a very 
different state of affairs 
to the value of aggre- 
gated families in seden- 
tary communities. The ■ 
dwellings of hunters are 
simple huts, made of 
branches and covered 
with leaves or made of 
skins, They are easily 
erected, and in the lat- 
ter case are easily port- 
able ; but in warm cli- 
mates a rain-proof hut 
can be made in a very 
short space of time with 
the materials that are 
ready to hand. It costs 
no money to make and 
but very httle time, and 
no regret is felt at leav- 
The household furniture is of "the most rudimentary 
character, on account of the migrations necessitated by 
the chase It is provided by the wood of the forest, by 
gourds, shells ot nuts, carapaces of turtles, shells of mol- 
luscs, in fact of anything ready to hand that will serve. 
the implements for the chase are quite as elementary 
wooden spears, bows and arrows for terrestrial animals - 
a canoe and fish spear, or a line and hook, for fishin<r' 
A few hours work would suffice to make them all fn 
the district of the Orinoco there are two kinds of canoes 
(I ) A sufliciently large tree is chosen from which a piece 
?ij /'^ several yards in length is detached. This is 
folded and its ends strongly secured bv lianas. Later 
the canoe is covered with leaves and placed over a great 
fire. This operation not only hardens it, but makes it 
start and it only remains to caulk the cracks with a 
kind of gum- supplied by neighboring trees. (2) The 
other canoes are tree trunks hollowed out by hatchets; 
although this operation is longer it i« accomnlished pretty 
quickly. Crevaux states that it takes four men only 
four hours to make a bark canoe. On several occasions 
when stopped by a rapid, they did not hesitate to abandon 
one and to make another in order to continue their voyage 
on the other side of the fall. 
There is, however, a very marked limitation of the 
means of existence. Game and fresh-water fish are more 
easily exterminated than the grass of the prairie and the 
fish of the sea. In our complicated societies it is neces- 
sary to frame special law^s to regulate fresh-water fishing 
and even the inshore marine fishing grounds are liable to 
depletion, and certain methods of marine fishing have to be 
prohibited or limited by law. 
The existence of hunters is not so assured as that of 
oastoral or fishing communities. The game may be over- 
huntejd or become scarce throug-h disease or unfavorable 
^easpns. hence hunting populations are subject to cruel 
famines.^ They cannot reserve food for these periods of 
famine in tropical countries, as the temperature necessi- 
tates the immediate consumption of the oroduct of the 
chase. At most they can preserve meat for four or five 
davs by subrnitting it to the action of a strong fire. 
The question of food is the principal occupation of 
• 
