Classification of Animals. 555 
many of which are already satisfactorily proved, and before the pub- 
lic ; and which show, that although all natural groups are circles, yet 
these circles are of different sizes, rank, and value, " therefore re- 
quire particular names, that their comparative value may be under- 
stood, and that they may become efficient instruments of reasoning." 
He then adverts to and refutes the assertion that species are the 
only divisions in nature, as they are found as much and as intimately 
connected among themselves as genera. The ranks and gradations 
of circular groups are found to be nine in number, and their names, 
indicative of their relative value, are as follows: 1. Kingdom; 2. Sub- 
kingdom ; 3. Class ; 4. Order ; 5. Tribe ; 6. Family ; 7. Subfamily; 
8. Genus ; 9. Subgenus, which is the lowest description of group 
yet discovered. For ourselves, we should have preferred the name 
Genus for the lowest group, giving that to which it is now applied 
another designation, say that of Domus ; but as the term Subgenus 
has already received the sanction of the public, we cannot venture 
to urge any further alteration. In confirmation of the universality 
of these groups, examples of series from various departments of 
zoology are given, each of which it appears are the result of a strict 
analytical investigation by the author. Directions are afterwards 
given for the discrimination of species, in which he dwells upon the 
principal distinctions of form, sculpture, and colour ; the mode of 
verifying a natural group is stated, by " ascertaining the circular 
series of its contents, the parallel relation of its parts to other groups, 
and the symbolical representation of the primary types of nature." 
This part of the subject he illustrates by the familiar example of the 
hedge-sparrow {Accentor modulari's,} whose analogies and station 
are further exemplified by appropriate diagrams. The concluding 
portion of the volume professes to be a " familiar explanation of the 
first principles of practical and scientific zoology, with suggestions 
for a plan of studying the details of each department." Of this 
dissertation, particularly addressed to those who have first commen- 
ced, or are about to commence, the study of zoology, we may brief- 
ly remark, that it contains much valuable matter, and many excel- 
lent hints and suggestions, as to the qualifications required, and the 
course of study to be pursued, in order to gain that insight and 
knowledge of the system of nature requisite to entitle the student 
to the name of a good naturalist, in the proper and extended accep- 
tation of the term. 
We now enter upon the Natural History and Classification of Ani- 
mals, which forms another volume of Dr Lardner's valuable Cyclo- 
NO. vi. o o 
