113 • 
on the average, a clear annual profit of $12 per acre. From time 
to time, as the evidence shows, the Swiss people stood in dread of 
a timber famine. Ordinances were passed forbidaing the reduc- 
tion of the forest area, the making of clearings, and the exporta- 
tion of wood from one Canton to another. In the middle of the 
eighteenth century, as modern industrial life began, various Car- 
tons sought to follow the examples which Bern and Zurich had 
set in forestry. A severe flood in 1830 brought home the need of 
more vigorous measures in guarding against torrerjts. The floods 
of 1834 and 1868 further enforced the lesson. An investigation 
of Swiss forest conditions w r as ordered by the Bund in 1857, and 
the same year provision was made for an annual appropriation 
of $2,000 to the Swiss Forestry Association for engineering and 
reforesting work in the Alps. In 1871 the Bundesrath was em- 
powered to carry on this work, with an annual appropriation of 
$20,000. After the flood of 1868 $200,000 of the collections made 
for the relief of the sufferers was devoted to reforestation. In 
1876 the Bund assumed supervision of the water and forest police 
in the High Alps above a certain elevation, and undertook to 
give aid in the work of engineering and reforesting for the con- 
trol of the Alpine torrents. Since 1898 the Bund has supervised 
all this work, and in 1902 the present forest policy was firmly fixed 
by a revision of the existing law. 
All the Swiss forests comprised in the Bund are now classified 
as protection and nonprotection forests. Whether public or pri- 
vate they are all controlled by the government. In protection 
forests all cuttings must be such as to preserve the protective 
value of the forest cover intact, and for this reason clean cutting 
is usually forbidden. In such forests stumpage sales are for- 
bidden, and all wood must be felled and measured under the direc- 
tion of a forest officer. Otherwise, privately-owned protection 
forests are supervised in the main as are those publicly owned. 
Nonprotection forests are also subject to a number of regulations. 
When they are in private hands clearings may be made only with 
consent of the Canton, logged areas must be reforested within 
three years, and existing forest pastures must be maintained. 
Where protection forests can be created by planting, this may 
be ordered, and where forests are converted to farming land oc 
pasture an equal area may be ordered reforested. Where barren 
ground is required to be forested for protective purposes, the Bund 
assists by paying from 30 to 50 per cent, of the cost. Between 
1876 and 1902 16,000 acres were reforested at a cost of $1,000,000, 
in round numbers, the Bund having paid one-half. 
Grazing has been regulated for centuries. In protection for- 
ests it is entirely prohibited ; but on all the rest of the forests 
great success has attended the efforts of the forest service to safe- 
guard both pasturage and the forest by supervision and range 
improvement. Despite differences in local conditions, the ex- 
perience in Switzerland in forest grazing is, therefore, strongly in 
